Semiconductors

Semiconductors are the building blocks of modern electronics, powering everything from smartphones to satellites. This in-depth guide provides a comprehensive understanding of semiconductors' engineering principles and applications, delving into their fundamental concepts, materials, devices, manufacturing processes, and their impact on today's technology landscape.

What is a Semiconductor? A Comprehensive Guide to Engineering Principles and Applications

This article answers the practical question: how does SPI work, detailing the theory behind the bus, the role of each signal, timing modes, architectures and topologies, and practical design considerations.

How Does SPI Work? A Comprehensive Guide for Digital and Hardware Engineers

<h2 id="isPasted">Introduction</h2>In the world of PCB manufacturing, precision, cost-effectiveness, and efficiency are essential. One often overlooked yet crucial feature in panelized PCB fabrication is the use of mouse bites PCB designs. Mousebites are tiny perforated holes along the edges of a PCB that allow individual boards to be easily broken off from a larger panel after assembly.   Mouse bites PCB technology is particularly useful in scenarios like surface mount technology (SMT) assembly, hand-assembled prototypes, and low-volume production runs. Their implementation can streamline the depanelization process, reduce tooling costs, and offer greater flexibility for irregular board shapes.  In this complete guide, we will explore what mouse bites PCB are, how they compare to other separation methods, and when and why to use them in your next PCB project. <h2>What is Mouse Bites PCB (Mousebites) in Manufacturing? </h2>The mouse bites, also called perforated breakaway tabs or pcb breakaway tabs, are the sharp edges left over after stamp hole depanelization when PCBs are manufactured in a panel using break-routing/break-off tabs. Mouse bite PCB structures consist of a line of tiny holes in a circuit board—just like the holes around postage stamps—permitting small PCBs to be used in an array.These rows of holes earned the nickname "mouse bites" because the indentations left behind after they break resemble the bite marks of a mouse that nibbled on the board. Mousebite PCB perforation is standard for FR4 panels. Drilling these holes leaves rough edges of extra material sticking out the side, while a V-groove PCB with a V-scored edge is smoother. In <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/">PCB manufacturing</a>, especially for PCB designs, mousebites are a common technique used when multiple small boards are grouped into a larger panel for easier assembly and processing. This method allows for easy separation after the assembly stage, which is crucial for efficiency, especially in high-mix low-volume production. <img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1758885705340-6386052473613841973909996.jpg" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /> <h2>Why Use Mouse Bites PCB and Breakaway Tabs? </h2>Mouse bites PCB serve several purposes in custom fabrication: <ul><li>Ease of Separation: They allow individual boards to be snapped out of a larger panel without complex tools.</li><li>Better Grip: When a board must be mounted or inserted into a tight slot, mousebite PCB edges help create a textured grip.</li><li>Cost-Effective for Hand Separation: Particularly for small runs or prototypes, this method reduces labor and tool requirements.</li><li>Design Flexibility: They're ideal for oddly shaped boards, where pcb breakaway tabs are more suitable than V-scoring.</li></ul>While standard on FR4 PCBs, mouse bites are also compatible with other substrates like <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-knowledge/aluminum-pcb.html">aluminum PCB boards</a>, though special care must be taken during the depanelization of metal-core materials due to their added thickness and rigidity.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1758885726457-6386052473638841739366953.png" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /> <h2>Mousebite PCB Design: How to Place Breakaway Tabs</h2>If you panelize individual PCBs within the panel, you only need to mouse bite the PCB edge. For routed boards, mousebites are typically seen on both the rail side and the board side. Routing a board and adding mouse bite PCB tabs is more expensive than a simple v-score, but non-rectangular outlines rely on this method. One important aspect is to have a clean edge after the breakaway tab is removed. Slight inset perforations are preferred because they leave an edge requiring little to no post-processing.  <img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1758885762953-6386052473712279554508578.png" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /> The spacing between PCB breakaway tabs can range from 60 mm to 90 mm, but I recommend 77 mm from center to center as shown in Figure 3. Try not to exceed 100 mm between tabs and try to evenly space them apart.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1758885787193-6386052473660719304067247.png" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /> <h2>How Mouse Bites PCB Panelization Works</h2>Mouse bites are used during the panelization process to create an array of PCBs that can be processed together during assembly. Here’s how it works:<ol><li> Multiple PCBs are arranged into a single panel, connected by  PCB breakaway tabs.</li><li> These tabs contain lines of drilled mousebite holes.</li><li> After assembly and soldering, the individual boards can be snapped out by hand or using tools like pliers. </li></ol>The drilled holes weaken the connection enough to allow for easy separation, yet maintain panel strength during the manufacturing process. Slight inset of perforation is preferred because it provides an edge which requires little to no additional labor to clean up.Learn more in our detailed guide: <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-knowledge/mouse-bites-panelization-for-smt-assembly.html">Mouse Bites Panelization for SMT Assembly</a><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1758885804002-6386052473666967557580572.png" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /> <h2>Mousebites PCB vs. V-Scoring: Which to Choose?</h2>It’s worth noting the difference between mouse bites PCB and V-scored PCBs.<ul><li>V-scoring: Cuts V-shaped grooves into the panel, resulting in smooth edges. </li><li>Mousebites: Use a line of perforated holes, leaving jagged edges unless sanded.</li></ul>While not as clean as <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-knowledge/pcb-depaneling.html">V cut PCB</a> edges, mouse bites are more suitable for curved edges or irregular board outlines. That said, for applications where smooth edges are not critical, mouse bites provide a faster and more flexible depanelization option. They are particularly advantageous when <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-manufacturing/laser-direct-imaging.html">laser direct imaging</a> is used for creating highly detailed and compact circuit designs, where board shapes might be irregular or compact spacing is needed. <img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1758885834204-6388698190971715436674111.png" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /> <h2>Cost-Saving Benefits of Mouse Bites PCB</h2>One of the primary reasons manufacturers prefer mousebites PCB is their cost-effectiveness. Here are the ways mouse bites can help reduce overall manufacturing expenses:<ol><li>No special cutting equipment required: Unlike V-scoring or routing, mouse bites can be created using standard CNC drilling machines.</li><li>Lower labor costs: Boards can be manually snapped apart without advanced machinery. </li><li>Reduced panel waste: Enables more flexible PCB breakaway tabs design, optimizing panel utilization. </li><li>Ideal for low-volume runs: Great for prototyping and small-batch productions where tooling costs must be minimized.</li></ol>See how mouse bites impact your bottom line: <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-knowledge/cost-effective-pcb-manufacturing-how-mouse-bites-can-save-you-money.html">Cost-Effective PCB Manufacturing: How Mouse Bites Can Save You Money</a><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1758885854130-6388698285359506422644228.png" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /> <h2>When to Use Mousebites PCB in Prototyping and Hand Assembly</h2>For low-volume, hand-assembled PCBs—such as in prototyping, research labs, or startups—mousebites PCB offer a reliable and low-cost solution.<ul><li>No need for depaneling equipment</li><li>Easy to break by hand with pliers</li><li>Can be combined with fiducials for alignment</li></ul>This method is especially useful in early development stages where speed, cost, and accessibility are key.Discover real-world applications: <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-knowledge/mouse-bites-are-a-life-saver-in-hand-assembled-pcbs.html">Mouse Bites are a life saver in hand assembled PCB</a>.<h2>Strength and Reliability of Mouse Bite PCB Edges</h2>A concern with mouse bite PCB depanelization is structural strength after snapping. Breaking tabs may leave: <ul><li>Rough edges (which may need sanding)</li><li>Potential microcracks if not handled properly</li><li>Slightly weaker corner strength compared to routed or scored boards</li></ul>However, with proper design considerations—such as increasing the tab width, using fewer mouse bites per tab, and post-break sanding—these issues can be mitigated.Learn about durability: <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-knowledge/the-impact-of-mouse-bites-on-pcb-strength-and-reliability.html">The Impact of Mouse Bites on PCB Strength and Reliability</a><h2> ALLPCB: Your Partner in Precision Mouse Bites PCB Manufacturing </h2>Mouse bites offer a practical and economical approach to PCB panelization and depaneling. Whether you're creating early-stage prototypes, managing hand-assembled boards, or optimizing for cost-efficiency, this method provides a flexible solution that balances quality and ease of use.At ALLPCB, we specialize in high-precision, custom PCB fabrication—including expertly designed mousebite PCB layouts for seamless panelization and clean depaneling. Whether you need rigid-flex PCBs, durable aluminum PCB boards, or advanced HDI solutions using laser direct imaging (LDI), our team ensures your boards are manufactured with unmatched accuracy and consistency. From quick-turn prototypes to complex multi-layer arrays with PCB breakaway tabs, ALLPCB helps you reduce lead times, control <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-ordering/pcb-cost-per-unit.html">custom PCB cost</a>, and maintain the highest manufacturing standards. Let us be your trusted partner in building smarter, cleaner, and more efficient PCBs—designed with mousebites that work.

Mousebites are tiny perforated holes along the edges of a PCB that allow individual boards to be easily broken off from a larger panel after assembly.

Complete Guide of Mouse Bites in PCB

This comprehensive guide discusses the MOSFET symbol, explaining how gate, source, drain, and body connections are represented for N channel and P channel devices. It covers theoretical concepts, practical design guidelines, market trends and emerging technologies.

Understanding the MOSFET Symbol: Theory and Practical Insights for Engineers

Printed Circuit Board (PCB) design is at the heart of modern electronics, enabling everything from smartphones and IoT devices to advanced robotics and AI-driven systems. As electronics evolve in complexity and performance, PCB design becomes more critical, impacting product reliability, efficiency, and innovation. In 2025, PCB design is not just about connecting components—it’s about managing high-speed signals, power efficiency, thermal performance, and manufacturability. Applications span across consumer electronics, automotive, aerospace, medical devices, and industrial automation, making PCB design a cornerstone of the electronics industry.<h2>PCB Design Basics</h2>PCBs are built from layers of conductive copper traces, insulating substrates, vias, and pads. At the foundation, a PCB consists of:<ul><li>Substrate (FR4, polyimide, etc.): Provides structural stability and thermal support. FR4 is common, while polyimide is used for high-temperature applications.</li><li>Copper Layers: Conductive traces carry electrical signals. PCBs can be single-layer, double-layer, or multilayer, with inner layers often used for power distribution or signal routing.</li><li>Solder Mask: Protects copper traces from shorts and oxidation, ensuring solder adheres only to exposed pads.</li><li>Silkscreen: Prints reference markings, component IDs, and symbols for assembly guidance.</li><li>Vias and Pads: Vias connect traces across layers; pads are exposed copper areas for soldering components.</li></ul>The PCB design process generally includes:<ol><li>Schematic Capture: Convert the circuit into a schematic diagram defining components and connections.</li><li>Component Placement: Position parts considering functionality, manufacturability, and thermal management.</li><li>Routing: Connect components with traces, maintaining signal integrity and proper spacing.</li><li>Design Rule Check (DRC): Verify trace widths, spacing, and other parameters to ensure manufacturability.</li><li>Gerber File Generation: Produce standardized files for fabrication and assembly, describing each layer and drill locations.</li></ol><h2>Design Tools &amp; Software</h2>Choosing the right <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-design/top-10-pcb-design-software-tools.html">PCB design softwares</a> is essential for engineers in 2025, as tools directly impact workflow efficiency, signal accuracy, and manufacturability. Among the most widely used platforms are Altium Designer, Cadence Allegro, OrCAD, KiCad, Autodesk Eagle, and Siemens EDA solutions. Each software serves different needs: Altium is strong in advanced routing and 3D visualization, Allegro excels in high-speed and enterprise-level projects, KiCad provides powerful open-source flexibility, and Eagle integrates seamlessly with mechanical CAD for IoT and prototyping.As PCB design evolves, software tools are moving toward greater intelligence and collaboration. AI-assisted design now helps automate routing and detect errors, while cloud-native platforms enable real-time teamwork across global design teams. Features such as 3D visualization, simulation for signal integrity and thermal performance, and built-in DFM checks are becoming standard. Staying updated with these advances ensures designers can handle the growing complexity of high-speed circuits, flexible PCBs, and next-generation IoT and AI hardware.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1758636115163-6389145850700969395908982.png" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /><h2>Design Considerations</h2>Designing a PCB requires balancing multiple engineering domains:<h3>Electrical Considerations</h3>Signal performance is critical. Parameters such as <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-design/pcb-copper-thickness.html">PCB copper thickness</a> influence current capacity and thermal performance. Controlled impedance routing ensures stability in high-speed circuits. Engineers often apply <a>impedance control</a> techniques to maintain signal quality.<h3>Mechanical Considerations</h3>Form factor and durability matter. Designers must consider board shape, thickness, and mounting holes for structural stability. Flexible PCBs are often used in compact devices like wearables.<h3>Thermal Considerations</h3>Managing heat is essential to reliability. Engineers employ heat sinks, copper pours, and <a>thermal vias</a> to distribute and dissipate heat efficiently.<h3>Manufacturing Feasibility</h3>Manufacturability is considered throughout the process. Ensuring <a>DFM</a> practices early reduces costly redesigns and production delays.<h2>Advanced PCB Design</h2>As electronics push boundaries, advanced PCB design techniques are necessary:<ul><li>High-speed design – Handling GHz-level signals requires precise routing, controlled impedance, and careful via design to minimize reflections and losses. Techniques such as differential pair routing, ground planes, and signal integrity simulations are critical in supporting PCIe 6.0/7.0, DDR5/DDR6 memory, and other high-speed interfaces.</li><li>Multilayer PCBs – With component density increasing, multilayer boards provide better routing flexibility and improved electromagnetic shielding. Optimized stack-up design reduces crosstalk and enhances power integrity, making them indispensable in servers, 5G base stations, and aerospace applications.</li><li>RF &amp; microwave design – Wireless technologies like 5G, Wi-Fi 7, and automotive radar demand PCBs designed with strict impedance control and low-loss materials. Special substrates such as Rogers or PTFE are used to maintain performance at high frequencies.</li><li>Flexible &amp; rigid-flex PCBs – These are increasingly vital in compact, lightweight, and durable designs such as wearables, medical implants, drones, and satellites. Rigid-flex technology allows seamless integration between rigid sections for stability and flexible sections for mobility.</li><li>AI-driven design – Modern EDA tools now integrate AI to assist with auto-routing, component placement, and error detection. AI can predict signal integrity issues, optimize thermal management, and even suggest cost-effective layouts, reducing design cycles and improving first-pass success rates.</li></ul><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1758636139117-6389146022560373546002704.jpg" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /><h2>Common Challenges &amp; Solutions</h2>Even experienced designers face issues:<ul><li>EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) – High-speed signals, poor grounding, or improper layer stack-ups can cause radiation and coupling problems. Solutions include maintaining continuous ground planes, optimizing trace layout, and applying effective shielding techniques. For more details, see practices related to <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-design/emi-or-emc-testing.html" target="_new" rel="noopener">EMI</a> control in PCB design.</li><li>Signal Integrity Issues – At GHz-level speeds, reflections, crosstalk, and delay skew can severely degrade signal quality. Designers address these with impedance matching, controlled trace lengths, and simulation-based validation. Learn more about managing <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-design/signal-integrity-issues-and-solutions.html" target="_new" rel="noopener">signal integrity issues</a> in high-speed PCB design.</li><li>Thermal Management – Heat buildup can shorten component lifespan and reduce system reliability. Thermal vias, copper pours, and heatsinks are commonly used to improve dissipation. Advanced strategies, such as <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-manufacturing/thermal-vias.html" target="_new" rel="noopener">thermal vias</a>, are essential in high-power applications.</li><li>Impedance Control – Incorrect impedance can cause reflections and distort high-speed signals. Proper stack-up design, trace width calculation, and material selection are critical. Detailed approaches to <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-design/impedance-control.html" target="_new" rel="noopener">impedance control</a> are necessary in RF and high-speed PCBs.</li><li>Manufacturability Challenges – Designs that ignore fabrication limits may lead to defects or higher production costs. Applying DFM principles ensures that layouts meet manufacturing tolerances while optimizing yield. A dedicated discussion on DFM highlights best practices for aligning design with production capabilities.</li></ul>By integrating simulation tools and best practices, these challenges can be resolved efficiently.<h2>PCB Manufacturing &amp; Assembly</h2>Designing a PCB is only half the journey — ensuring smooth manufacturing and assembly is equally critical. A design that performs well in simulation may still fail if it cannot be fabricated or assembled efficiently. This is why close collaboration between designers and manufacturers is essential.One of the most important principles is <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-design/pcb-design-for-manufacturing.html">DFM</a> (Design for Manufacturing), which ensures that layouts comply with fabrication tolerances such as minimum trace widths, via sizes, and copper clearances. Applying DFM guidelines early helps reduce defects, improve yields, and lower overall costs. Similarly, DFT (Design for Testability) must be considered to provide test points and access for debugging during assembly and quality control.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1758636192712-6389146816980567383737019.jpg" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" />Modern PCB manufacturing also relies heavily on precision processes such as automated solder paste printing, pick-and-place assembly, and reflow soldering. For advanced boards, techniques like selective soldering, X-ray inspection, and AOI (Automated Optical Inspection) ensure quality and reliability. In high-power or high-frequency designs, features such as controlled copper thickness, thermal vias, and surface finishes (ENIG, HASL, OSP) must be optimized to balance electrical and mechanical performance.In 2025, the integration of smart factories and AI-driven quality assurance is transforming PCB production. Intelligent inspection systems detect defects in real time, while digital twins allow manufacturers to simulate assembly workflows before production. By aligning PCB design closely with fabrication and assembly requirements, engineers can ensure a seamless transition from concept to mass production, reducing both lead time and risk.<h2>Applications of PCB Design</h2>PCB design supports innovation across industries:<ul><li>IoT – Compact, low-power PCBs drive wearables, smart sensors, and connected devices. Learn more about <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-design/iot-pcb-design.html">IoT PCB design</a>.</li><li>Robotics – From motor controllers to AI processors, PCBs power robotics systems. See practical examples in <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-knowledge/robotics-control-pcb-design-for-beginners-from-schematic-to-reality.html">robotics PCB design</a>.</li><li>AI hardware – AI accelerators demand advanced PCBs for thermal control and high-speed data. Explore <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-design/ai-driven-pcb-design-trends-in-2025.html">AI-driven PCB design</a>.</li><li>Consumer electronics – Smartphones, laptops, and wearables rely on optimized PCB design for performance and miniaturization.</li><li>Automotive &amp; aerospace – Safety-critical and ruggedized PCBs handle extreme conditions.</li></ul> <img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1758636300149-pcba+%281%29.jpg" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /><h2>Conclusion</h2>PCB design is the foundation of electronics innovation in 2025. Mastery of fundamentals such as copper thickness, impedance control, thermal vias, EMI, and DFM is essential for building reliable systems. With AI and IoT shaping the future, PCB designers must stay agile, combining proven practices with emerging technologies to deliver the next generation of electronic devices.

In 2025, PCB design is not just about connecting components— it is about managing high-speed signals, power efficiency, thermal performance, and manufacturability.

PCB Design 2025: Complete Guide, Tools & Best Practices

The USB-C connector has revolutionized modern electronics, offering a compact, reversible design capable of delivering high-speed data, power, and versatility in a single package. For engineers designing printed circuit boards (PCBs), integrating USB-C connectors presents both opportunities and challenges. A poorly implemented USB-C design can lead to signal degradation, power delivery issues, or even device failure, while a well-executed one ensures reliability and performance. In this blog, we'll explore practical design guidelines to help you seamlessly integrate USB-C connectors into your PCBs, focusing on <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-design/signal-integrity-issues-and-solutions.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">signal integrity</a>, power management, and layout best practices. Whether you're working on a consumer gadget or an industrial system, these insights will empower you to create robust, future-proof designs.USB-C's rise to prominence isn't just about convenience—it's about capability. With support for up to 10 Gbps data transfer (USB 3.1 Gen 2), 100W power delivery, and compatibility with protocols like HDMI and Thunderbolt, it's a game-changer. But with great power comes great responsibility: the dense 24-pin layout and high-speed signals demand precision. Let's dive into the essentials of USB-C PCB integration to ensure your next project performs flawlessly.<h2>Why USB-C Matters for PCB Design</h2>USB-C isn't just another connector—it's a standard that's reshaping how devices connect and communicate. Its reversible plug orientation eliminates user frustration, while its ability to handle high-speed data and substantial power makes it ideal for everything from smartphones to laptops. For PCB designers, this means adapting to tighter tolerances, higher frequencies, and stricter electrical requirements compared to older USB standards like Type-A or Micro-B.The 24-pin configuration of USB-C includes dedicated lines for USB 2.0 (480 Mbps), USB 3.1 (up to 10 Gbps), power (VBUS and GND), and configuration channels (CC1 and CC2). This complexity requires careful planning to avoid crosstalk, impedance mismatches, and electromagnetic interference (EMI). By following proven design guidelines, you can harness USB-C's full potential while minimizing risks—whether you're aiming for a basic 5V/3A power sink or a high-speed data hub. <img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1758532780024-6387902693654309013838186.png" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /><h2>Key Design Considerations for USB-C Integration</h2><h3>Signal Integrity: Keeping Data Clean</h3>High-speed signals are the backbone of USB-C's performance, but they're also its Achilles' heel if not handled correctly. The USB 2.0 differential pair (D+ and D-) operates at 480 Mbps, while USB 3.1 SuperSpeed pairs (TX and RX) push up to 10 Gbps. To maintain signal integrity:<ul><li>Controlled Impedance: Route differential pairs with a target impedance of 90 ohms (±10%) for USB 3.1 and 85 ohms for USB 2.0. Use a 4-layer PCB with a solid ground plane beneath the traces to achieve this. For example, a trace width of 6 mils and spacing of 8 mils on a 1.6mm FR4 board typically hits this target.</li><li>Length Matching: Keep differential pair lengths within 5 mils (0.127 mm) of each other to avoid timing skew. For USB 3.1, this is critical as signal rise times are as low as 50 ps.</li><li>Minimize Vias and Corners: Each via or sharp turn introduces reflections. Use no more than two vias per differential pair and opt for 45-degree bends instead of 90-degree angles.</li></ul>Proper routing ensures clean data transmission, reducing bit errors and ensuring compatibility with connected devices.<h3>Power Delivery: Handling Up to 100W</h3>USB-C's Power Delivery (USB PD) spec allows up to 20V at 5A—100W of power—far beyond the 5V/0.5A of early USB standards. This capability demands robust power management:<ul><li>VBUS and GND Traces: Use wide traces (at least 20 mils for 3A, scaling to 50 mils for 5A) to handle current without excessive voltage drop or heat. For a 5A design, a 1 oz copper layer should have a trace width of about 40-50 mils to keep temperature rise below 10°C.</li><li>Decoupling Capacitors: Place 0.1 µF and 10 µF capacitors near the VBUS pins to filter noise and stabilize voltage. Position them within 100 mils of the connector for optimal effect.</li><li>CC Pins Configuration: The CC1 and CC2 pins negotiate power roles. For a basic sink (device drawing power), connect 5.1 kΩ pull-down resistors to ground on both CC lines. This signals a 5V/3A capability to the source.</li></ul>A well-designed power network prevents brownouts and ensures safe operation under load.<h3>EMI and Shielding: Reducing Noise</h3>High-speed signals and power switching generate EMI, which can interfere with nearby circuits or violate regulatory standards. Mitigate this with:<ul><li>Ground Planes: Surround USB-C traces with a continuous ground plane on adjacent layers. Avoid routing signals over splits or cutouts, which disrupt return paths and increase EMI.</li><li>Shielding: Connect the USB-C connector's metal shell to ground via multiple vias (at least four) to shunt noise. Space these vias evenly around the connector footprint.</li><li>Component Placement: Keep high-speed clocks, oscillators, or magnetic components at least 50 mils away from USB traces to prevent coupling.</li></ul>Effective EMI control keeps your design compliant and reliable in noisy environments.<h2>PCB Layout Guidelines for USB-C</h2><h3>Connector Placement</h3>Position the USB-C connector near the PCB edge to simplify plug access and minimize trace lengths. For surface-mount connectors, ensure the footprint aligns with manufacturer specs—typically a 0.5mm pitch for pins and a 3.16mm width for the receptacle. Secure it with through-hole mounting tabs for mechanical stability, especially in devices subject to frequent plugging.<h3>Differential Pair Routing</h3>Route USB 2.0 (D+/D-) and USB 3.1 (TX/RX) differential pairs as tightly coupled pairs:<ul><li>Space traces 5-8 mils apart within a pair, and at least 20 mils from other signals to reduce crosstalk.</li><li>Avoid running traces under crystals, ICs, or other noisy components. For example, a 25 MHz crystal near a USB 3.1 pair can induce jitter if not isolated.</li><li>Use length tuning (e.g., serpentine traces) to match pair lengths, keeping skew below 5 mils.</li></ul><h3>Grounding and Layer Stackup</h3>A 4-layer stackup is ideal for USB-C designs:<ul><li>Layer 1 (Top): Signal traces and components.</li><li>Layer 2: Solid ground plane.</li><li>Layer 3: Power plane or additional ground.</li><li>Layer 4 (Bottom): Low-speed signals or secondary routing.</li></ul>For USB 3.1, route SuperSpeed pairs on the top layer over a ground plane on Layer 2. This minimizes impedance discontinuities and provides a low-inductance return path. Add stitching vias along the trace edges every 100-200 mils to tie ground planes together.<h2>Common Pitfalls and How to Avoid Them</h2><h3>Impedance Mismatches</h3>An impedance mismatch—say, 100 ohms instead of 90 ohms—can cause signal reflections, degrading data rates. Use a PCB design tool with an impedance calculator and verify with your fabricator's stackup data. Test a prototype with a time-domain reflectometer (TDR) to confirm.<h3>Overheating Power Traces</h3>Undersized VBUS traces (e.g., 10 mils for 5A) can overheat, risking delamination or failure. Calculate trace width using IPC-2221 standards: for 1 oz copper at 5A, you need at least 47 mils with a 20°C rise. Double-check with a thermal simulation if pushing limits.<h3>Poor ESD Protection</h3>USB-C ports are exposed to electrostatic discharge (ESD). Without protection, a 15 kV strike can fry your ICs. Add ESD suppressors (e.g., TVS diodes rated for 5V or 20V, depending on VBUS) near the connector, within 50 mils of the pins.<h2>Testing Your USB-C Design</h2>Before mass production, validate your PCB:<ul><li>Signal Integrity Testing: Use an oscilloscope to check eye diagrams for USB 2.0 and 3.1 signals. A clean eye (e.g., &gt;80% height, &lt;20% jitter) confirms compliance.</li><li>Power Delivery: Load test VBUS at max current (e.g., 3A or 5A) and measure voltage drop. It should stay within 5% of the spec (e.g., 4.75V min for 5V).</li><li>Compliance: Run USB-IF certification tests if targeting commercial markets. Tools like the Ellisys USB Explorer can automate this.</li></ul>Prototyping and iteration catch issues early, saving time and cost. <img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1758532740450-6387902737596512328655135.jpg" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /><h2>Leveraging ALLPCB for USB-C Success</h2>For engineers tackling USB-C integration, partnering with a reliable PCB manufacturer can make all the difference.ALLPCB offers <a href="https://www.allpcb.com/online_pcb_quote_new.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">pcb prototyping</a> to test your designs in days, not weeks, ensuring you can iterate fast on signal routing or power tweaks. Our advanced manufacturing capabilities support tight tolerances—like 6-mil traces and 0.5mm-pitch footprints—critical for USB-C's dense layout. Plus, with global logistics, we deliver boards wherever your project takes you, keeping your timeline on track. Whether you're refining a high-speed data hub or a rugged power sink, ALLPCB's expertise helps bring your USB-C vision to life.<h2>Conclusion</h2>Integrating USB-C connectors into your PCB design unlocks a world of possibilities—high-speed data, robust power delivery, and universal compatibility. But success hinges on precision: controlled impedance, thoughtful routing, and solid grounding are non-negotiable. By following these guidelines—keeping differential pairs tight, sizing power traces right, and shielding against EMI—you'll build a design that's not just functional but reliable. Test thoroughly, avoid common pitfalls, and you'll have a USB-C implementation that stands up to real-world demands. Ready to start? We're here to help you turn your ideas into reality with confidence.

The USB-C connector has revolutionized modern electronics, offering a compact, reversible design capable of delivering high-speed data, power, and versatility in a single package.

USB-C Connectors: Design Guidelines for Reliable PCB Integration

This guide delves into X5R vs X7R multilayer ceramic capacitors (MLCCs), explaining the physics, design trade-offs, and how to choose the right dielectric for modern digital and analog circuits.

X5R vs X7R: Comprehensive Comparison & Engineering Design Guide 2025

Understanding the differences between Single Pole Single Throw (SPST), Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT), and Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) switches is essential for designing reliable hardware. This article explains the theory behind these switching configurations and practical implementations.

What Is the Difference Between SPST, SPDT and DPDT? A Comprehensive Guide for Engineers

Stanford pediatric surgeon <a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/james-dunn">James Dunn</a> specializes in helping children with short gut syndrome, a congenital disease in which children are born with short intestinal tracts. “I’ve been working to grow new intestinal tissue by applying a mechanical force to the intestine – stretching it,” Dunn, who is a professor of surgery in the <a href="https://med.stanford.edu/">School of Medicine</a>, explained. “But I didn’t have a way to demonstrate that this new tissue is functioning exactly like normal intestine.”That is when Dunn reached out to <a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/zhenan-bao">Zhenan Bao</a>, the K.K. Lee Professor of Chemical Engineering and director of the <a href="https://wearable.su.domains/">Stanford Wearable Electronics Initiative (eWEAR)</a>, who has drawn worldwide attention for developing skinlike electrical circuits, like her electronic <a href="https://news.stanford.edu/stories/2023/05/soft-e-skin-talks-brain">skin</a> that can sense the weight of a butterfly and the heat of a flame. The result of their collaboration is NeuroString, a multichannel, soft, thread-like implantable biosensor/stimulator.NeuroString is just a quarter of a millimeter in diameter – about the width of a human hair – and can host hundreds to thousands of independent electronic “channels,” each of which can sense neurochemicals, stimulate muscle or nerve, sense gut movement patterns, or monitor the activity of a single neuron, among many other promising possibilities. The team details its NeuroString work in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09481-2">the latest issue</a> of the journal Nature.<h2>Unmet needs</h2>“There is great need, in both research and clinical settings, for these minimally invasive sensing and stimulation bioelectronics,” said co-author <a href="https://med.stanford.edu/profiles/xiang-qian">Xiang Qian</a>, co-director of Stanford’s <a href="https://wearable.su.domains/">eWear Initiative</a> and a medical doctor who specializes in neuromodulation to treat severe pain. Currently, clinical tools boil down to rigid and bulky needlelike probes or stiff wires with limited functionality.“It is a high-density electronic fiber that’s also exceptionally biocompatible due to its softness,” Qian said. “It can stay inside the body for months at a time or longer, and it’s so soft and small that it can be implanted without discomfort or harm to the patient.”Beyond the thin and soft circuitry, Bao’s team also developed a clever roll-up fabrication technique. They prepared <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pV09v_n5bnM">a video of the method</a> that shows a prototype with 20 electronic channels laid out on a thin, transparent skin-like material. The film is then rolled tightly into a spindle so thin it is described as one-dimensional. All 20 electrical connecting wires in the example are spiraled inside the string, like the layers in a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_roll">Swiss roll</a>, while the 20 sensors are exposed on the surface. Each independent sensor/stimulator is connected by a discrete wire running the length of the NeuroString to deliver valuable data.<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/pV09v_n5bnM?&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0"></iframe>Video demonstrates how a two-dimensional thin film with micropatterned electronic devices is rolled into a one-dimensional fiber. | Image credit: Chengyi Xu; video courtesy Bao LabBao said the approach allows exquisite control of the positioning and distribution of the active components, and her team has demonstrated a fiber with a remarkable 1,280 individual channels. “Many more channels can be added if we make longer fibers,” says <a href="https://baogroup.stanford.edu/people/muhammad-khatib">Muhammad Khatib</a>, a postdoctoral fellow and first author on the paper.<h2>New frontiers</h2>On a practical front, to demonstrate the effectiveness of their new electronic fiber, Bao, Dunn, and team used the implanted NeuroString to monitor the intestines of a pig and to observe individual neurons in the brain of a mouse over four months.Dunn explained that, in his field, measuring basic things like how the intestine contracts without interrupting normal activities may sound easy, but it has so far been out of reach, not to mention that the intestine also does a lot of things like absorbing nutrients and secreting biochemicals like serotonin that he might want to track.“To be able to stimulate the muscle and measure all these other things in a specific region will be transformative for my research and, potentially, my medical practice – NeuroString is a platform for us to understand how the intestine works,” Dunn said.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1758371540950-images+%281%29.jpeg" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" />A cross-section of the NeuroString. Multiple electrical channels can be spiraled inside the string, like the layers in a Swiss roll. It’s rolled so tightly that the string can be described as one-dimensional. | Courtesy Bao LabThe research team anticipates that such devices could have far-reaching impacts in fields ranging from neuroscience to gastroenterology. They envision that it could yield robotic pills that can be swallowed to diagnose medical conditions throughout the gastrointestinal tract or be wrapped around an optical fiber to create an ultra-thin endoscope.Qian thinks NeuroString could introduce an era of minimally invasive, closed-loop neural stimulation techniques – devices that can both sense nerve dysfunction and intervene in an instant. “You only need to stimulate when you detect this abnormal electric signal to shut it down,” Qian said of his device, which he is currently testing in mice. “It will be ten times smaller than conventional alternatives and much safer with fewer complications. It would be groundbreaking.”In a tubelike form, Bao says the NeuroString could deliver drugs to precise locations inside the body. Imagine a new form of implantable insulin pump that both senses blood sugar and delivers the life-sustaining hormone on demand, much like the pancreas.In brain studies, NeuroString could deliver light for optogenetics and sense its effect on local neurons to optimize light intensity. And these potential applications are only the in-body opportunities for NeuroString. In other practical outlets, Bao said, NeuroString might lead to a new era of smart fabrics and textiles, wearable devices, and soft robotics.<h2>Synthetic organs</h2>One area of research that Bao finds particularly intriguing is organoids – lab-grown tissues that function like real tissue for use in research. Her team, together with <a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/xiaoke-chen">Xiaoke Chen</a>, associate professor of biology in the <a href="https://humsci.stanford.edu/">School of Humanities and Sciences</a>, initially developed a NeuroString with only one neurochemical sensor seeded by <a href="https://biox.stanford.edu/highlight/stretchable-probe-measures-brain-chemicals-central-parkinson%E2%80%99s-depression-and-gut-disease">Bio-X seed funding</a>. The team’s initial development of this advanced NeuroString came under the aegis of the <a href="https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/news/toolmakers-aim-untangle-fundamental-challenges-neuroscience">Brain Organogenesis Big Ideas in Neuroscience</a> program at the <a href="https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/">Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute</a>.The Brain Organogenesis program is pursuing new models of human brain circuits to understand how the brain develops and what is happening when things go wrong, as in numerous neurological and psychiatric diseases from depression to Parkinson’s disease. Bao said her NeuroString technology was inspired by the need for soft sensors that can be embedded inside the growing organoids that will allow researchers deeper insights into the function and biochemistry of these lab-grown mini-organlike structures to mimic human tissues.“We hope to thread these thin electronics inside and throughout organoids, to promote and monitor their growth,” Bao said. “That’s our vision and it’s pretty exciting.”

The NeuroString is just a quarter of a millimeter in diameter – about the width of a human hair – and can host hundreds to thousands of independent electronic channels that could be used to sense, stimulate, or monitor parts of the human body. | Courtesy Bao Lab

Developed by Stanford researchers, NeuroString is a hair-thin multichannel biosensor and stimulator with promising potential applications in drug delivery, nerve stimulation, smart fabrics, and more.

Soft bioelectronic fiber can track hundreds of biological events simultaneously

Additive electronics is growing in popularity as a prototyping and production process for printed circuit boards (PCBs). The method, which encompasses printing technologies like <a href="https://www.voltera.io/blog/introduction-direct-ink-writing-printing-technology?utm_campaign=Wevolver&amp;utm_source=website&amp;utm_medium=choosing-right-solder-paste&amp;utm_content=direct-ink-writing">Direct Ink Writing</a> (DIW), takes a different approach to conventional PCB production, selectively adding conductive and dielectric materials to a substrate rather than removing excess material. This has several benefits, including more efficient, agile, and sustainable PCB prototyping. Despite the key differences between additive and subtractive electronics production, PCB production necessitates a few key elements: a substrate (i.e. the board), electronics components, and a solder material, such as solder wire or solder paste. In additive electronics, solder paste plays a critical role, ensuring that electronic components are kept in place and that electrical and mechanical connections are maintained after reflow for optimal PCB performance and functionality. In this article, we’ll be looking closer at the role of solder paste in PCB production, the various types of solder paste that exist on the market, and how to choose the right solder paste when working with an additive PCB production method, such as Voltera’s DIW platforms. <h1>What is solder paste?</h1>Before diving into how to choose the right solder paste when working with an additive electronics technology, let’s first cover the basics. <a href="https://www.voltera.io/blog/what-is-solder-paste?utm_campaign=Wevolver&amp;utm_source=website&amp;utm_medium=choosing-right-solder-paste&amp;utm_content=solder-paste">Solder paste</a> is a sticky fluid that is made up of a powdered metal alloy (called solder) and a chemical agent (called flux). When the flux is mixed with the powdered metal, it creates a viscous paste that can be extruded through a nozzle. The flux also functions as a protective matrix for the metal particles, preventing them from oxidizing. (This composition is different to more conventional solder wire, which is sold as a solid wire infused with flux, typically applied manually to circuit boards manually using a soldering iron.) <iframe src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/V3AAvR96LYI?&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" style="width:640px;height:460px"></iframe> When using an additive electronics printing method, solder paste is applied to circuit boards in a specific pattern or at specific points. When this application is complete, the entire board is heated, which allows the metal particles in the paste to melt and form a bond. This is the reflow process.<h2>The function of solder paste</h2>Solder paste has a dual function in additive PCB production. First, solder paste holds components in place, which is vital in an additive approach since layers and traces are built up on the substrate rather than etched away. Second, in the reflow process the metal particles in the solder paste are melted and fused, creating a strong mechanical bond between leads, conductive traces, and conductive pads. This also ensures low-resistance electrical conductivity. The dual function of solder paste in additive PCB production—physically securing components and ensuring optimal conductivity—is key to ensuring the structural integrity and long-term performance of the device.<h2>Common types of solder pastes</h2>We know that solder paste is made up of solder and flux, but it is also important to understand that there are various types of solder paste based on different flux materials, solder alloy composition, and particle size.Flux is essential for removing oxides from metal surfaces and promoting solder wetting. There are three main types of flux material, each of which has different properties when it comes to corrosiveness, activity, and cleaning. They are:<ul><li>Rosin flux: This type of flux is derived from pine tree resin and is mixed with a solvent. Rosin-based flux can withstand high soldering temperatures and is non-corrosive. It is typically not water-soluble and requires solvent-based cleaning after reflow to remove leftover flux. </li><li>Water-soluble flux: This type of flux, made from organic acids and solvents, is highly active. After reflow, the flux must be thoroughly washed away using water to avoid any corrosion. </li><li>No-clean flux: This type of flux uses synthetic resins and low-activity acids. It leaves minimal residue after reflow and does not require cleaning, making it suitable for high-volume PCB production.</li></ul>Solder composition can also vary and influence factors including performance, handling characteristics, environmental impact, and compatibility with other materials. There are two main solder categories—both of which are based on tin since it has a low melting point. They are:<ul><li>Lead-based solder: Lead-based solders, usually an alloy of tin and lead, were for years the standard in electronics production. This type of solder has the benefit of a low melting point (~183°C), which makes it easy to work with and minimizes thermal stresses on PCB components. Lead-based solder also demonstrates good wetting properties for smooth reflow. All that said, lead is highly toxic and poses health and environmental risks during manufacturing, use, and disposal. Due to this, its use has been heavily restricted in the EU by the Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) since 2006. Additionally, lead is incompatible with certain conductive materials, such as silver inks.</li><li>Lead-free solder: Lead-free solders are typically tin-based alloys containing copper, silver and/or bismuth. These alloys have the benefit of being more environmentally friendly and non-toxic than their lead counterparts (as well as compliant with RoHS standards in most cases). Lead-free solder is also compatible with silver inks, commonly used in additive electronics. They generally have higher melting points, which can introduce more thermal stress and require tighter process control.</li></ul>Finally, metal particle size in the solder also influences the solder paste’s overall properties. To guide users, solder pastes are characterized by different IPC types, which identifies various solder powder sizes. The scale used for measuring particle size ranges from T1 to T8, where the lower numbers indicate larger particle sizes. In general, finer particle sizes offer better printing resolution, making them suitable for high-density PCBs and miniaturized components. Larger particle sizes are less prone to oxidation and are suitable for larger components and through-hole applications. <h1>How to apply solder paste</h1><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzU4Mjc2NjY5OTcwLTE3NTgyNzY2Njk5NzAucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" width="624" height="351" class="fr-fic fr-dii" />Voltera’s V-One PCB printer dispensing solder paste on a PCB. Source: Voltera.Generally speaking, solder paste is selectively applied to circuit boards. There are different approaches to applying solder to electronic circuits: hand soldering or automatic soldering.<h2>Hand soldering</h2>With hand soldering, you need a variable-temperature soldering iron, soldering wire, and flux. Hand soldering is suitable for:<ul><li>Prototypes</li><li>epairs and rework </li><li>Low-volume production</li><li>Double-sided assemblies where selective heating is needed. </li></ul><a href="https://www.voltera.io/about/about-us?utm_campaign=Wevolver&amp;utm_source=website&amp;utm_medium=choosing-right-solder-paste&amp;utm_content=voltera">Voltera</a> supplies low-temperature solder wire specifically formulated to work with silver-based conductive inks. This is important because conventional solders can form unwanted intermetallics with silver, degrading the reliability of printed traces. <h2>Automated soldering</h2>Automated dispensing and reflow provides greater precision, repeatability, and throughput. For example, electronics printers—like Voltera’s <a href="https://www.voltera.io/products/v-one?utm_campaign=Wevolver&amp;utm_source=website&amp;utm_medium=choosing-right-solder-paste&amp;utm_content=v-one">V-One</a> and <a href="https://www.voltera.io/products/nova?utm_campaign=Wevolver&amp;utm_source=website&amp;utm_medium=choosing-right-solder-paste&amp;utm_content=nova">NOVA</a> systems—offer precise and reliable solder paste dispensing. In these systems, solder paste is contained in a cartridge and dispensed directly onto the board with the ability to select specific solder pads and reprint on the fly. The V-One is a compact desktop PCB printer that also includes a built-in reflow heater, allowing for a full print-to-reflow workflow in one device—ideal for in-house PCB prototyping and electronics education. The NOVA, Voltera’s materials dispensing platform, is designed for larger boards, multi-layer circuits, and flexible electronics. It offers greater precision and flexibility, making it ideal for research labs and low-volume production where circuit flexibility, multilayer construction, and print accuracy and repeatability are paramount.<h2>Voltera solder pastes</h2>Voltera offers a range of solder pastes, including lead-based and lead-free compositions. <ul><li>Tin-lead solder paste (Sn63Pb37) contains 63% tin and 37% lead. This solder paste offers a strong bond and can withstand higher temperatures than its lead-free counterpart. It is ideal for printing solder pads onto traditionally manufactured PCBs. As mentioned, however, the tin-lead solder paste has limitations when it comes to printing PCBs on the V-One since it is not compatible with printed silver inks, and it requires good ventilation due to lead.</li><li>Lead-free solder paste (Sn42Bi57.6Ag0.4) is made up of 42% Tin, 57% Bismuth, and 0.4% Silver. The inclusion of bismuth offers a lower reflow temperature (190°C for 30 seconds) and makes the solder paste compatible with printed silver traces. Working with this solder paste requires precision and a gentle touch for the optimal performance.</li></ul>Both lead and lead-free solder pastes use a rosin flux, which translates to low corrosion compared to water soluble flux. Voltera also offers both Type 4 (20-38 microns) and Type 5 pastes (10-25 microns). The former is ideal for standard sized circuits and reflows well on printed pads; the latter is ideal for smaller, more precise components.<h1>Matching the solder paste to an application</h1><h1><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzU4Mjc2NjY5OTk1LTE3NTgyNzY2Njk5OTUucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" width="624" height="351" class="fr-fic fr-dii" />Solder paste being reflowed using V-One . Source: Voltera.</h1>Ultimately, choosing the right solder paste comes down to the application. As we’ve seen throughout this article, different types of solder paste have distinct properties, which make them either viable or less than ideal depending on what type of PCB is being printed and what materials are used. For example, you wouldn’t choose a lead-based solder paste to solder a printed circuit with silver ink traces, since the two are incompatible. Looking specifically at Voltera’s solder pastes, each is suitable for a set of applications. Let’s take a closer look:<div><table><tbody><tr><td><h3>Solder paste type</h3></td><td><h3>Suitable applications</h3></td></tr><tr><td><a href="https://store.voltera.io/products/solder-paste-cartridge">T4 Solder Paste Sn42Bi57.6Ag0.4</a></td><td>This lead-free solder paste is a reliable choice for printing standard-sized circuits on the V-One, since it is compatible with the company’s conductive silver inks.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="https://store.voltera.io/products/solder-paste-cartridge-t5-sn42bi57-6ag0-4">T5 Solder Paste Sn42Bi57.6Ag0.4</a></td><td>This lead-free option with finer particle sizes  is a good fit for miniaturized components with fine traces. </td></tr><tr><td><a href="https://store.voltera.io/products/solder-paste-cartridge-t5-sn63pb37">T5 Solder Paste Sn63Pb37</a></td><td>This tin-lead solder paste is ideal for printing onto traditionally manufactured PCBs with a HASL surface finish. This solder paste also facilitates rework.</td></tr></tbody></table></div>It is also worth mentioning that Voltera sells a <a href="https://store.voltera.io/products/solder-wire-sn42bi57ag1?_pos=1&amp;_fid=c9ef9ca69&amp;_ss=c">solder wire</a> (Sn42Bi57Ag1) with a flux of 2.2%, which is compatible with its conductive inks and enables users to manually solder double-sided boards. <h1>Conclusion</h1>Ultimately, understanding the role that solder paste plays in additive electronics can empower users to choose the optimal product when printing PCBs. The right solder paste used in combination with one of Voltera’s DIW printing platforms can result in circuits that benefit from excellent precision as well as mechanical and electrical stability.If you’re into printed electronics, Voltera regularly hosts webinars to help you go deeper. <a href="https://www.eventbrite.ca/e/how-to-connect-circuits-connector-technologies-and-integration-strategies-tickets-1660450846179?aff=wevolver">Register for Voltera’s upcoming webinar</a>, How to Connect Circuits: Connector Technologies and Integration Strategies, running 11 a.m.-12 p.m. ET on Thursday, September 25, 2025.

Electronic components and solder paste. Source: Voltera.

Everything you need to know about choosing the right solder paste when printing electronics, from composition and function to particle size and application.

Choosing the Right Solder Paste for Additive Electronics

Focused laser-like light that covers a wide range of frequencies is highly desirable for many scientific studies and for many applications, for instance quality control of manufacturing semiconductor electronic chips. But creating such broadband and coherent light has been difficult to achieve with anything but bulky energy-hungry tabletop devices.Now, a Caltech team led by <a href="https://www.eas.caltech.edu/people/amarandi?back_url=%2Fpeople">Alireza Marandi</a>, a professor of electrical engineering and applied physics at Caltech, has created a tiny device capable of producing an unusually wide range of laser-light frequencies with ultra-high efficiency—all on a microchip. The work has potential in areas ranging from communications and imaging to spectroscopy, where the light would aid the detection of atoms and molecules in various settings.The researchers describe the new nanophotonic device and approach in a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41566-025-01753-7">paper</a> that appears in the journal Nature Photonics. The lead author of the paper is Ryoto Sekine (PhD '25), who completed the work while a graduate student in Marandi's lab."We are showcasing that with a single nanophotonic device and low input energies in the femtojoule range, you can actually cover a broad section of the electromagnetic spectrum, from visible wavelengths to the mid-infrared. This is something that had never been done," Marandi says.The Caltech device uses a technology that has been around since 1965: an optical parametric oscillator (OPO). Essentially, an OPO is a resonator, a tiny engineered light trap that takes incoming laser light at an input frequency and uses a special nonlinear crystal—here, lithium niobate—that, with careful engineering, can generate light of different frequencies.In general, OPOs start from a laser source with a narrow frequency range and generate outputs at different frequencies but still in a narrow range. Typically, they have been used as laser-like sources with widely tunable, or adjustable, output frequencies.<h2>A Light Comb<a href="https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/uniting-the-light-spectrum-on-a-chip#a-light-comb"></a></h2>However, in this work, Marandi and his colleagues have engineered their OPO at the nanoscale on a chip to generate what is known as a frequency comb, a spectrum of evenly spaced laser-like light across a wide range of frequencies with very little input energy. The frequency comb covers a surprisingly broad spectral range, providing sharp, stable lines from the visible light that we can see all the way to the longer mid-infrared wavelengths.Two scientists earned a share of the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work developing the frequency comb technique. Unlike conventional lasers, which emit a single color of light, frequency combs act like a ruler for light across a range of frequencies. These combs have been used to improve everything from the precision of atomic clocks and measurements made with light to environmental monitoring.But, Marandi says, "there have been two main challenges with frequency combs: One is that the sources are too big, and the second is that it's challenging to make them in different desired spectral windows. Our work offers a path toward solving both of these problems."The new device's key advances are what Marandi describes as dispersion engineering—shaping how different wavelengths of light travel through the device, ensuring that they stay together rather than spreading out—and a carefully designed resonator structure. Together, these allow the device to broaden the spectrum efficiently and to maintain coherence while requiring an extremely low threshold, or energy at which it begins working.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1758036054465-Marandi_Alireza-chipuncutoutcolor-WEB.width-450.jpg" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" />The chip used by Marandi and his colleagues. Credit: Ryoto Sekine<h2>A Surprisingly Broad Coherent Spectrum<a href="https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/uniting-the-light-spectrum-on-a-chip#a-surprisingly-broad-coherent-spectrum"></a></h2>Marandi says that he and his team were surprised by the device's performance. "We turned it on and cranked up the power, and when we looked at the spectrum, we saw that it was extremely broad. We were particularly surprised that the super-broad spectrum was actually coherent. This was against the textbook descriptions of how OPOs work," he says.That sent the researchers back to their simulations and to theory to try to figure out how that could be. In simulations, raising the energy of incoming light above the threshold caused the spectrum to become incoherent—that is, of various wavelengths and not locked in phase, which means no frequency comb is generated. But back in the lab, the spectrum was coherent when operating farther above threshold."It took us maybe six months to discover that there is this new regime of OPO operation in which the OPO is far above its threshold and the coherence is reestablished," Marandi says. "Because the threshold of this OPO is orders of magnitude lower than previous OPOs, and the dispersion and the resonator are engineered unlike the previous realization of OPOs, we could observe this phenomenal spectral broadening, which is orders of magnitude more energy efficient than other spectral broadening schemes."The researchers say the work could reshape how frequency comb-based technologies, currently found in table-top setups, could transition to integrated photonic devices. One of the main techniques used to make stable frequency combs requires significantly broadening their spectrum. The energy required for such broadening has been one of the bottlenecks preventing integration of frequency comb technologies on chip.Beyond that, the bulk of photonic technologies, including most well-developed lasers and detectors used for measuring molecules, operate in the near-infrared or visible range. OPOs that start from near-infrared lasers as the input frequency and then efficiently convert the light, outputting coherent light in the mid-infrared range, could allow researchers, for example those working with spectroscopy, to access a wealth of information at lower frequencies. At the same time, such a device could enable accessing the higher-frequency range for atomic spectroscopy.The paper is titled "Multi-Octave Frequency Comb from an Ultra-Low-Threshold Nanophotonic Parametric Oscillator." Additional authors are former Caltech graduate students Robert M. Gray (PhD '25) and Luis Ledezma (PhD '23) as well as current Caltech graduate student Selina Zhou and former postdoctoral scholar Qiushi Guo. The device nanofabrication was performed at the <a href="https://www.kni.caltech.edu/">Kavli Nanoscience Institute</a> at Caltech. The work was supported by funding from the Army Research Office, the National Science Foundation, the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, DARPA, the Center for Sensing to Intelligence at Caltech, and JPL, which is managed by Caltech for NASA.

The experimental setup shown here incorporates on-chip optical parametric oscillator (OPO) technology to generate a frequency comb of laser-like light covering a wide range of frequencies with very little input energy. In this image, the chip includes ~20 OPOs, and one of them is being tested. An optical fiber is shown to the left of the chip and a free-space objective to the right. Credit: Alireza Marandi

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<h2 id="isPasted">Introduction: Volatility Is the New Normal</h2>Manufacturing today operates in an environment shaped by unpredictability. From raw material shortages and shifting trade policies to sudden demand fluctuations, volatility has become the norm. Businesses can no longer rely solely on static supply chains or long-term forecasts to stay competitive.This article explores how engineering and sourcing teams can adapt to these realities. It looks at the evolving responsibilities of engineers, outlines key strategies for operational continuity, and highlights how Conrad has positioned itself as a high-service sourcing platform that supports manufacturers when flexibility matters most.<h2>The Evolving Role of Engineers in Manufacturing</h2>In modern manufacturing, the responsibilities of engineers do not end at design. They are increasingly involved in solving supply chain bottlenecks, identifying substitute materials, managing compliance workflows, and ensuring that what gets designed can actually be built.This shift reflects a larger transformation in how manufacturing teams operate. Engineers must now collaborate more closely with procurement and operations. The boundaries between departments are dissolving, and cross-functional decision-making is essential. But without the right tools or transparency into sourcing and delivery timelines, engineers are often left to improvise, resorting to design changes or last-minute workarounds to stay on schedule.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1757078326278-conrad+%281%29.jpg" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" />Engineering teams today face increasing pressure to adapt designs based on sourcing constraints, compliance demands, and real-time project needs. Photo Credit: Kristof LempThe pressure to do more with less, faster, is not going away. That is why building resilience into the engineering workflow is no longer optional. It is a competitive necessity.<h2>Strategy for Operational Continuity</h2>Staying ahead of disruptions requires more than reactive fixes; it calls for infrastructure that supports speed, flexibility, and informed decision-making. <a href="http://conrad.com/">Conrad</a> has emerged as a key partner in this space, offering a sourcing platform designed to help engineering and procurement teams embed continuity into their processes from the start. <img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1757078455308-conrad+%282%29.jpg" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" />From sourcing hard-to-find components to managing fulfillment, Conrad brings digital procurement and supply chain agility to engineers’ fingertips. Photo Credit: Westend61/Getty ImagesThrough a combination of technical expertise, digital tools, and service integration, the Conrad Sourcing Platform delivers several strategic advantages:<ul><li>Customized Sourcing: Not every situation can be solved with off-the-shelf solutions. Engineers often need tailored products that meet specific performance or size constraints. Conrad supports these requirements through custom sourcing, reducing the need for design rework and enabling faster deployment.</li><li>Integrated Logistics: Speed and predictability matter, especially when demand shifts mid-cycle. By managing the full product journey from factory to final destination, Conrad ensures better tracking, coordination, and fewer delays.</li><li>Early Compliance and Testing: Regulatory and safety requirements often delay product rollouts. Conrad helps customers handle certifications and quality checks early in the sourcing process, reducing friction and accelerating time-to-market.</li><li>E-Procurement Solutions: <a href="https://www.conrad.com/en/service/orderservice/procureplus.html?">Conrad's ProcurePlus</a> service streamlines procurement with features like multi-user access, approval workflows, budget controls, and customizable catalog views. It integrates seamlessly with Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems and offers automated order tracking, making it easier for businesses to manage procurement with transparency and control.</li></ul><h2>Case Study: The “Baby Dummy” Story</h2>The development of advanced safety systems in cars is evolving rapidly. One new requirement in the automotive industry is Child Presence Detection (CPD), a feature designed to detect if a child is accidentally left in a vehicle. Austrian company 4activeSystems created a lifelike newborn dummy to help test these systems.This Baby Dummy mimics the appearance, movement, and breathing patterns of a real infant. It is made with advanced composite materials and is used in labs to validate CPD sensor performance. But as development progressed, 4activeSystems faced several rounds of rapid design iteration. This led to frequent changes in material requirements, including new sizes of connectors, sensors, chips, and other components.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1757078823270-conrad+%283%29.jpg" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" />A plastic baby dummy secured in a car’s rear seat, designed for evaluating CPD systems and in-cabin safety technologies.  Credit: 4activeSystems GmbHConrad stepped in as a high-service sourcing partner. Rather than simply shipping parts, Conrad worked closely with 4activeSystems to secure urgently needed supplies, handle logistics, and keep development on track, despite shifting technical demands. Their ability to respond quickly helped 4activeSystems maintain momentum without compromising quality or compliance."Conrad's long-standing presence and reliability in the field of electronic components made them a trustworthy partner for 4activeSystems projects." Simon Perle, Product Manager for Occupant Detection at 4activeSystems GmbH.This collaboration was not just about parts; it was about partnership. And it illustrates the growing importance of agile sourcing in engineering-intensive fields.<h2>Conrad’s Evolution into a Modern Sourcing Platform</h2>Conrad has spent a century building its expertise and credibility in electronics. Starting as a radio parts supplier and evolving into a staple of the electronics industry, the company has continuously responded to market shifts and customer needs.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1757078894606-1757078894606.png" width="740" height="416" class="fr-fic fr-dii" />Today, Conrad is a high-service sourcing partner dedicated to B2B and industrial sectors. Its platform offers over 10 million verified products, but its strength lies in the comprehensive suite of services that support every stage of the manufacturing lifecycle:<ul><li>Specialized and Secure Sourcing: Fast and reliable access to hard-to-find or alternative components, especially critical during design changes or shortages. All products are sourced from verified suppliers, helping eliminate risks related to counterfeit or gray-market parts.</li><li>Technical Project Support: Access to product specialists and engineering consultants helps resolve sourcing challenges, assist with prototyping, and keep complex projects moving.</li><li>Digital Procurement Tools: Conrad’s e-procurement tools offer features like catalog integration, role-based approvals, and real-time tracking, streamlining procurement workflows and improving visibility. With <a href="https://www.conrad.com/en/service/orderservice/procureplus.html">Conrad’s ProcurePlus</a>, these capabilities expand to include supplier consolidation, spend optimization, and automated order handling for greater efficiency and cost control.</li><li>Compliance, Testing, and Quality Services: Support for early-stage regulatory compliance, measurement device calibration, and quality checks ensures that sourced components meet both operational and market requirements.</li><li>Custom Modifications: Conrad offers configuration services such as pre-cut cable lengths, bundled kits, and tailored assemblies to simplify deployment and reduce engineering overhead.</li><li>Flexible Ordering Conditions: Whether ordering in small batches or bulk quantities, customers benefit from fair pricing, consistent quality, and dependable delivery timelines.</li><li>Pan-European Fulfillment: Reliable logistics across Europe ensure fast delivery, while regional partnerships enhance Conrad’s ability to meet specialized sourcing needs.</li></ul>As the Baby Dummy case shows, Conrad is more than a marketplace; it’s a continuity partner that brings technical depth, supply assurance, and procurement intelligence into one platform.<h2 id="isPasted">Final Thoughts: Engineering Continuity as a Competitive Advantage</h2>Continuity in manufacturing isn’t the result of luck; it’s the outcome of intentional planning, the right systems, and dependable partnerships. As disruptions become the norm rather than the exception, the ability to adapt quickly without compromising quality is emerging as a key differentiator.Engineering and procurement leaders who embed flexibility, digital visibility, and supply assurance into their operations are better equipped to deliver, not just under ideal conditions, but when it matters most.Conrad makes this shift possible. It offers more than just components by delivering end-to-end sourcing support, integrated logistics, quality assurance, and e-procurement infrastructure that transforms uncertainty into strategic control.Discover how Conrad can become your partner in operational continuity. Visit <a href="http://conrad.com">conrad.com</a> and take control of uncertainty today.

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