This white paper explains how precision timing solutions support reliable PNT architectures across aerospace, defense, and industrial systems.


New White Paper on Precision Timing Solutions

aerospace

Synera

Aerospace CNC machining is the backbone of modern aircraft production. This guide explains the theory and practice behind it.

Aerospace CNC Machining: How Precision Manufacturing Powers Modern Flight

The applications of 3D printing span many industries, from aircraft fuel nozzles to dental aligners. Here we look at some of the most important uses of the technology.

Applications of 3D Printing: From Industry to Electronics and Beyond

Fig 1 - Printed Circuit Board Chips and Radio Components

Unveiling the Duel of Digital Design - A Comprehensive Exploration of History, Syntax, and Applications of the two popular hardware description languages

Verilog vs VHDL: A Comprehensive Comparison

In this article, we will dive deep into the world of simultaneous localization and mapping using Lidar technology. Lidar SLAM has been gaining popularity in recent years, thanks to its versatility and applications across various domains, including autonomous vehicles, mobile robotics, and indoor mapping.

Lidar SLAM: The Ultimate Guide to Simultaneous Localization and Mapping

James Webb Space Telescope aims to take us to the unexplored realm of our cosmic origins. From observing the formation of the first stars and galaxies to looking for the possibility of life on other planets, the telescope will play a major role in the future of space exploration.

James Webb Space Telescope Science Instruments Explained

Based on an interview with Dr. Anita SenguptaImages of futuristic societies have long included high-tech urban air transportation for average citizens. With small drones becoming ubiquitous, such a future seems within reach. With the expansion of electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft, a significant portion of the population is looking forward to reduced congestion, shorter commutes, improved accessibility, and increased sustainability.Many also wonder what is delaying this future. When will we move beyond drones that deliver packages to air taxis that can carry human passengers across regions and urban areas for sustained periods?According to Dr. Anita Sengupta, CEO of Hydroplane, an up-and-coming hydrogen fuel cell powerplant manufacturer, the answer to these questions lies in solving four key challenges: power density limitations, competition from established aviation technologies, reliability requirements for autonomous flight, and sustainability concerns associated with combustion engines.<h2>Challenge 1: Power Density</h2>Non-electric VTOLs have been in use for decades, including helicopters and other aircraft such as the Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey. However, nearly all these aircraft have relied on internal combustion engines. As VTOL manufacturers shift their focus to electric powertrains to reduce air and noise pollution, they face the challenge of power density. That is, eVTOLs need sufficient power to run near-constant urban and regional flights from lightweight batteries.According to Sengupta, "In aviation, weight is everything. Batteries are heavy and can do short hops, but once you start talking about meaningful range and quick turnaround, the numbers just don't work."Currently, most eVTOLs can manage 20–30 minutes of flight time per charge and then have to spend significant time on the ground to recharge. "This might be enough to move people a limited distance within a certain metropolitan area, but not much more," Sengupta continues. "In urban air mobility, cargo, and regional flights, every minute and every pound counts. The time required to recharge frequently would significantly reduce the number of people a sky taxi could move in a given time period."<h3>Solution</h3>To overcome the power density challenges of electric batteries, the Hydroplane team has turned to hydrogen fuel cells. These cells generate electricity through an electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, producing water, heat, and electricity."Hydrogen-fuel-cell–powered electric propulsion gives you much higher energy density," Sengupta says. "This makes it possible to fly farther and carry more, putting regional air mobility and urban flights easily within reach."In addition, Hydroplane's hydrogen fuel cells refuel quickly when needed, unlike the lithium-ion, solid-state, and sodium-ion batteries used by the current generation of eVTOLs. "For example, in the case of airport-to-city-centre shuttles, hydrogen electric would allow eVTOLs to cover a route and, then, with their rapid refuelling, turn around quickly and keep going," Sengupta explains.<h2>Challenge 2: Heavy Competition</h2>The next generation of air taxis faces stiff competition from a broad ecosystem of original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) of fixed-wing and rotary aircraft, as well as traditional VTOLs. Electric urban air mobility vehicles also face the daunting challenge of competing with combustion-engine aircraft, which offer broad capabilities and are time-tested, especially for the unique requirements of aviation.<h3>Solution</h3>Sengupta's strategy for this challenge is to avoid direct competition by emphasizing modularity. "We're focused on being the 'engine company' of the hydrogen-electric industry," she explains. "Our aim is to support—rather than compete with—OEMs. So, we have designed ourselves to be a drop-in replacement for both existing and new aircraft."Also, unlike other alternatives, Hydroplane's hydrogen fuel cell powertrain is explicitly designed for aviation."It's modular, liquid-cooled, and integrates high-efficiency power electronics [and an] axial flux motor, all powered by a fuel cell stack optimized for flight," Sengupta says. "The entire unit is designed for high specific power [and] compact packaging and meets aviation standards. We also have a [Controller Area Network (CAN)]-enabled software architecture that can be customized for various piloted and autonomous aircraft."So far, the Hydroplane team has tested its hydrogen fuel cell powertrain in a Piper Cherokee—a fixed-wing, propeller-driven aircraft—and US Army helicopters. This has provided rich, real-world data to improve the integration, operation, and reliability of Hydroplane fuel cells in eVTOLs and air taxis.<h2>Challenge 3: Reliability</h2>"As VTOLs move increasingly toward autonomy, it puts even more pressure on propulsion systems to be ultra-reliable," Sengupta explains. "For example, an autonomous sky bus service that runs the same route all day will require a propulsion system that demands only minimal downtime and predictable maintenance. And in terms of safety, with no pilot on board, it needs to have built-in redundancy in the event of an airborne fuel cell failure."<h3>Solution</h3>To address this challenge, the Hydroplane team has designed its hydrogen fuel cells to be more reliable than its electric counterparts. "We've built our fuel cells with fewer moving parts, fewer potential points of failure," Sengupta says. "This results in a significant reduction in downtime and maintenance that makes these eVTOLs a much more feasible, reliable option."She continues: "And of course, our hydrogen fuel cells also address safety concerns with built-in redundancy between modules. If one module has an issue, the other modules will ensure that you stay in the air."<h2>Challenge 4: Sustainability</h2>While many see automobiles as the worst offenders for air-polluting emissions, aircraft combustion engines have performed far worse in this area.Helicopters are notorious gas guzzlers that outperform most automobiles in emissions. For example, the Robinson R44, a helicopter commonly used in sightseeing, uses approximately 60L of fuel and produces an estimated 185kg of carbon dioxide equivalent emissions for every flight hour.<a href="https://www.mouser.com/blog/eit-2025-hydrogen-fuel-cells-power-future-of-evtols#_edn1" target="_blank">[1]</a> The Bell 206 JetRanger, however, dwarfs this output, with fuel consumption of 100L and more than 321kg of carbon dioxide equivalent emissions per flight hour.<a href="https://www.mouser.com/blog/eit-2025-hydrogen-fuel-cells-power-future-of-evtols#_edn2" target="_blank">[2]</a>Therefore, filling urban airspace with combustion-powered VTOLs that emit similarly high levels is untenable.<h3>Solution</h3>eVTOLs offer a significant reduction in polluting emissions because they produce none. However, they can still indirectly contribute to air pollution if their electricity is generated from non-renewable sources such as coal.The Hydroplane team's approach eliminates the need to draw electricity from the grid, generating its own energy in a fully emission-free process."We are proud to be able to help air travel take a big step forward in drastically reducing emissions," Sengupta says. "These advances will let us enjoy the benefits of this increased mobility without the anxiety and guilt that come with pollution."<h2>Conclusion</h2>According to Sengupta and the Hydroplane team, hydrogen fuel cells address four key challenges facing eVTOLs: the power-density limitations of batteries, competition from established aviation technologies, reliability requirements for autonomous flight, and sustainability concerns associated with combustion engines. Their aviation-specific, modular fuel cell powertrains offer higher energy density, rapid refueling capabilities, fewer points of failure, and zero emissions during flight. With successful testing already completed on aircraft such as the Piper Cherokee and on US Army helicopters, hydrogen fuel cells represent a viable path forward to making sustained urban and regional air mobility a practical reality.<h2>Dr. Anita Sengupta</h2><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1769622016946-489563271_1217858757007749_8517622216328782586_n.jpg" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="Dr. Anita Sengupta, CEO - Hydroplane Ltd." />Dr. Anita Sengupta, CEO - Hydroplane Ltd.Dr. Anita Sengupta is an aerospace engineer, climate tech entrepreneur, commercial pilot, and professor at USC. As CEO of Hydroplane Ltd., she pioneers hydrogen fuel cell power plants for aviation and energy storage, advancing sustainability and innovation while shaping the future of space exploration and green transportation.<h2>Sources</h2>[1] <a href="https://www.tasmanianhelicopters.com.au/fleet/robinson_r44_raven_1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">tasmanianhelicopters.com.au/fleet/robinson</a>; <a href="https://www.climatiq.io/data/emission-factor/6f5a30a9-7dd6-48a7-b2d2-745789d19cab" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">climatiq.io/data/emission-factor</a>[2] <a href="https://www.tasmanianhelicopters.com.au/fleet/bell_206_jetranger" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">tasmanianhelicopters.com.au/fleet/jetranger</a>; <a href="https://www.climatiq.io/data/emission-factor/b2b48c3d-6067-49ed-82bc-b7b3c2777849" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">climatiq.io/data/emission-factor</a>

Learn why growing hardware teams slow down as they scale, and how aligned workflows, parallel collaboration, and real-time design visibility restore speed and momentum.

Hydrogen Fuel Cells Power the Future of eVTOLs

New Transport Canada RPAS regulations go into effect November 4, 2025.Among many coming changes, the industry is most excited about the prospect of enabling routine, low-risk BVLOS flight for those with the new Pilot Certificate: Level 1 Complex Operations (plus an organization or point person – an Accountable Executive – holding an RPAS Operator Certificate). The RPOC holder accepts overall responsibility for safe operations, including maintenance, training etc. In addition, the drone must meet TC’s safety requirements for Level 1 Complex Operations.But to fly BVLOS, the regulations require some sort of Detect and Avoid (DAA) system to avoid conflict with traditional low-flying aircraft. TC has provided <a href="https://tc.canada.ca/en/corporate-services/acts-regulations/list-regulations/canadian-aviation-regulations-sor-96-433/standards/standard-923-vision-based-detect-avoid" target="_blank">a standard</a> for vision-based DAA, but it has limitations including a max distance of 4 NM. For longer range BVLOS missions (and there are many applications) or other scenarios that don’t align with the standard, the operation must use a technology-based DAA solution.For an industry scrambling to take on routine, low-risk BVLOS operations, that’s a bit of a stumbling block. The cost of DAA systems (including ground-based radar) is prohibitive. And that’s why a recent LinkedIn post by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/brian-fentiman-55024b111/" target="_blank">Brian Fentiman</a>, CEO of BlueForce UAV Consulting (and InDro’s Law Enforcement Division Consultant) recently caught our attention.“Canada’s drone industry is ready for BVLOS, but one major barrier remains: affordable Detect and Avoid (DAA) solutions,” he wrote. “Most DAA systems cost over $100k and can run into the millions. That’s not scalable.”InDro’s Training and Regulatory Specialist, Kate Klassen, agrees, saying “It might be the first time the regulations have been ahead of the technology.”Below: A look at the issue<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1761575455274-Detect-and-Avoid-scaled.jpg.webp" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="Detect and Avoid" /> <h3 id="isPasted">Electronic Conspicuity</h3>A far simpler and more cost-effective solution, argue many, would be a mandatory requirement for all crewed aircraft flying at lower altitudes to be equipped with an electronic system that constantly broadcasts information about its position and altitude. This generally means Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast Out, or ADS-B Out. It’s a vastly more affordable path to avoiding conflict between RPAS and low-flying aircraft, and the cost for RPAS operators for technology to detect these signals is inexpensive, accessible, and available.“The answer lies in Electronic Conspicuity (EC), low-cost ADS-B Out broadcast by crewed aircraft that lets RPAS operators safely detect and avoid traffic,” writes Fentiman. “The US, Australia, the UK, and New Zealand are already doing this. Canada must catch up.”Fentiman argues such a mandate would quickly open the skies to much-needed RPAS services, including:<ul><li>Search and Rescue</li><li>Energy Corridor Inspection</li><li>Emergency Response</li><li>Infrastructure Monitoring</li></ul>NAV CANADA mandated the use of this technology by traditional aviation flying in Class A Domestic Airspace in 2019, expanding it to include Class B in August of 2023. ADS-B is currently not required in uncontrolled airspace. There will be no further changes for some time to come.“The implementation of any subsequent Canadian ADS-B mandate in Class C, Class D or Class E airspace will occur no sooner than 2028, pending further assessment and engagement with stakeholders,” <a href="https://www.navcanada.ca/en/news/news-releases/ads-b-mandate-comes-into-effect-in-canadian-domestic-class-b-airspace.aspx" target="_blank">says NAV CANADA</a>.That’s part of the reason why the RPAS industry believes it’s critical to address this issue as soon as possible.“We don’t have a good RPAS-based solution for Detect And Avoid,” explains Klassen. “And size, weight and power restrictions are a challenging problem, which makes it hard to execute BVLOS missions under these regulations. That’s where Electronic Conspicuity comes in. If we expand the NAV CANADA mandate for ADS-B Out…then the only thing we need on the drone is a system to detect those signals.” <h3>Petition</h3>With the lack of an approved and affordable DAA system for drones themselves, many in the RPAS industry believe the simplest and most expedient solution is a broader mandate for ADS-B Out on all aircraft that fly below 500′. And so multiple industry partners (including the <a href="https://www.aerialevolution.ca/" target="_blank">Aerial Evolution Association of Canada</a>) have come together to create a petition to Transport Canada “to implement a nation-wide requirement for Electronic Conspicuity systems on all low-flying crewed aircraft that share airspace below 500 feet AGL with drones.”“It’s time to unlock safe and economical BVLOS drone operations in Canada,” writes Fentiman. “A national EC (Electronic Conspicuity) mandate would make Canada safer for both drones and general aviation.”You’ll find Brian’s full LinkedIn post <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/posts/brian-fentiman-55024b111_bvlos-rpas-dronesafety-activity-7384362846127792128-_b04?utm_source=share&amp;utm_medium=member_desktop&amp;rcm=ACoAAAeV1aUBl9vIw9w1aG6GtX4bsmUk5yhLt_U" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a> – feel free to repost – and you can find a link to the petition <a href="https://indrorobotics.ca/enable-bvlos/" target="_blank">here</a>.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1761575793182-The-Path-Forward-EC-scaled.jpg.webp" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="The Path Forward" /><h3 id="isPasted">InDro's Take</h3>Like many in the industry, InDro embraces the coming regulations. But we share the belief that the lack of an affordable and approved DAA system will impinge RPAS operators during what should be a period of rapid expansion into routine, low-risk BVLOS flight. That’s why InDro is one of the partners pushing forward this petition.“Mandating Electronic Conspicuity for all crewed aircraft that share airspace with drones is a logical, practical and cost-effective solution that has the benefit of enhancing safety for traditional aviation, too” says InDro’s Kate Klassen.Once again, you can sign the petition <a href="https://indrorobotics.ca/enable-bvlos/" target="_blank">here</a>. And please spread the word.

How standardized electronic identification will enable high-volume, complex drone operations.

Accelerating Canada's Drone Industry with Mandatory E-Conspicuity

In this episode, we explore how the mechanics of bird wings are inspiring new approaches to prevent airplanes from stalling and learn how bio-mimetic designs from nature are paving the way for innovations in aviation, enhancing stability and safety for future flights.

Podcast: Scared of Flying Boeing? Nature Might Be The Solution

This article was discussed in our <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/the.next.byte" rel="noopener noreferrer">Next Byte podcast</a>.&nbsp;<iframe height="200px" width="100%" frameborder="no" scrolling="no" seamless="" src="https://player.simplecast.com/613afcf0-5191-4293-a6a1-7f18ec73fe53?dark=false" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe> The full article will continue below.<hr>“These flaps can both help the plane avoid stall and make it easier to regain control when stall does occur,” said <a href="https://mae.princeton.edu/people/faculty/wissa" data-type="link" data-id="https://mae.princeton.edu/people/faculty/wissa">Aimy Wissa</a>, assistant professor of <a href="https://mae.princeton.edu/">mechanical and aerospace engineering</a> and principal investigator of <a href="https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2409268121">the study</a>, published Oct. 28 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.The flaps mimic a group of feathers, called covert feathers, that deploy when birds perform &nbsp; certain aerial maneuvers, such as landing or flying in a gust. Biologists have observed when and how these feathers deploy, but no studies have quantified the aerodynamic role of covert feathers during bird flight. Engineering studies have investigated covert-inspired flaps for improving engineered wing performance, but have mostly neglected that birds have multiple rows of covert feathers. The Princeton team has advanced the technology by demonstrating how sets of flaps work together and exploring the complex physics that governs the interaction.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzMwMTYzMTAzMjIwLVdpc3NhLXBsYW5lLWZlYXRoZXJzLWhlcm8tZm9yLXdlYi0yMDQ4eDExNTIuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Princeton researchers at the Forrestal campus. Left to right: Ahmed K. Othman, Girguis Sedky, Hannah Wiswell and professor Aimy Wissa. Photo by Lori M. NicholsGirguis Sedky, postdoctoral researcher and the paper’s lead author, called the technique “an easy and cost-effective way to drastically improve flight performance without additional power requirements.”The covert flaps deploy or flip up in response to changes in airflow, requiring no external control mechanisms. They offer an inexpensive and lightweight method to increase flight performance without complex machinery. “They’re essentially just flexible flaps&nbsp;that, when designed and placed properly, can greatly improve a plane’s performance and stability,” Wissa said.A wing’s teardrop form forces air to flow quickly over its top, creating a low-pressure area that pulls the plane up. At the same time, air pushes against the bottom of the wing, adding upward pressure. Designers call the combination of this pull and push “lift.” Changes in flight conditions or a drop in an aircraft’s speed can result in stall, rapidly reducing lift.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzMwMTYzMTIzMjAxLWZvci13ZWItMDkxMjI0LVBSTi1XaW5kVHVubmVsLUxNTjI2NDcxLTE1MzZ4MTAzMC5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The researchers explored the physics behind the flaps’ performance in a wind tunnel at Princeton.Wissa’s team designed a series of experiments in the wind tunnel at Princeton’s Forrestal Campus to understand how flaps mimicking the feathers would affect flight performance, especially near stall, which usually happens when the plane is at a steep angle, when covert feathers were observed to deploy. The tunnel allowed the team to examine the way different flap arrangements affected variables like air pressure around the wings, wind speed over the wing and vortices that impact performance.The team attached the covert-inspired flaps to a 3D-printed model airplane wing and mounted it in the wind tunnel, a 30-foot-tall metal contraption that simulates and measures air flow. “The wind tunnel experiments give us really precise measurements for how air interacts with the wing and the flaps, and we can see what’s actually happening in terms of physics,” Sedky said.The wind tunnel is equipped with sensors that read the forces felt by the wing, as well as a laser and high-speed camera that measure precisely how air is moving around the wing.The study uncovered the physics by which the flaps improved lift and identified two ways that the flaps control air moving around the wing. One of these control mechanisms had not been previously identified. The researchers uncovered the new mechanism, called shear layer interaction, when they were testing the effect of a single flap near the front of the wing. They found that the other mechanism is only effective when the flap is at the back of the wing.The researchers tested configurations with a single flap and with multiple flaps ranging from two rows to five rows. They found that the five-row configuration improved lift by 45%, reduced drag by 30% and enhanced the overall wing stability.“The discovery of this new mechanism unlocked a secret behind why birds have these feathers near the front of the wings and how we can use these flaps for aircraft,” Wissa said. “Especially because we found that the more flaps you add to the front of the wing, the higher the performance benefit.”Following the results of the wind tunnel experiments, the team moved outside the lab and into the field to test the covert-inspired flaps on a scaled model aircraft. Princeton’s Forrestal Campus was once an airport and still features an operational helipad. So, the researchers teamed up with Nathaniel Simon, graduate student in mechanical and aerospace engineering who researches drone flight, and demonstrated the technology in real-world conditions by equipping a radio-controlled (RC) airplane with covert-inspired flaps.The researchers worked with members of the Somerset RC model aircraft club to select a model plane. The researchers then modified the airplane body to outfit it with an onboard flight computer, and Simon drew on his experience piloting drones to fly it. They programmed the flight computer to stall the aircraft autonomously and repeatedly. Simon said it was amazing to see the flaps deploy in-flight and to see that they helped delay and reduce stall intensity, just as they did in the wind tunnel. “It’s cool to be able to collaborate in the shared space at the Forrestal campus, and to see how many areas of research this project touched,” he said.Sedky said that in addition to improving flight, their findings could be extended to other applications where modifying the surrounding fluid would benefit performance. “What we discovered about how coverts alter the airflow around the wing can be applied to other fluids and other bodies, making them applicable to cars, underwater vehicles, and even wind turbines,” he said.Wissa said that this study could open the door to collaborations with biologists to learn more about the role of covert feathers in bird flight, and that the results of this study will help form new hypotheses that can be tested on birds. “That’s the power of bioinspired design,” she said. “The ability to transfer things from biology to engineering to improve our mechanical systems, but also use our engineering tools to answer questions about biology.”<hr>The paper, “Distributed feather-inspired flow control mitigates stall and expands flight envelope,” by was published Nov. 20 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Besides Wissa, Sedky and Simon, authors include Ahmed K. Othman, and Hannah Wiswell, graduate students in mechanical and aerospace engineering. Support for the project was provided in part by the National Science Foundation.

Princeton researchers equipped the wings of an RC plane with wing feather-inspired flaps, and flew it at Princeton’s Forrestal Campus to prove that the flaps help prevent airplanes from stalling. Photos by Lori M. Nichols

Taking inspiration from bird feathers, Princeton engineers have found that adding rows of flaps to a remote-controlled aircraft’s wings improves flight performance and helps prevent stalling, a condition that can jeopardize a plane’s ability to stay aloft. 

Bird wings inspire new approach to flight safety

A technology that could propel crewed missions to Mars and robotic spacecraft throughout the solar system was recently put to the test at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California. On Feb. 24, for the first time in years and at power levels exceeding any previous test in the United States, a team fired up an electromagnetic thruster that runs on lithium metal vapor.<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/6XsqSA9tNfY?&amp;t=47s&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0" frameborder="0" class="fr-draggable"></iframe> This prototype achieved power levels beyond the highest-power electric thrusters on any of the agency’s current spacecraft. Valuable data from the first firing of this thruster will help inform an upcoming series of tests.“At NASA, we work on many things at once, and we haven’t lost sight of Mars. The successful performance of our thruster in this test demonstrates real progress toward sending an American astronaut to set foot on the Red Planet,” said NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman. “This marks the first time in the United States that an electric propulsion system has operated at power levels this high, reaching up to 120 kilowatts. We will continue to make strategic investments that will propel that next giant leap.”During five ignitions, the tungsten electrode at the thruster’s center glowed bright white, reaching over 5,000 degrees Fahrenheit (2,800 degrees Celsius). The work was conducted in JPL’s Electric Propulsion Lab, home to the condensable metal propellant vacuum facility, a unique national asset for safely testing electric thrusters that use metal vapor propellants at up to megawatt-class power levels.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1778594277560-e1-MPD_Jay.width-1320.jpg" style="width:813px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" />JPL senior research scientist James Polk peers into the condensable metal propellant (CoMeT) vacuum facility at JPL’s Electric Propulsion Lab, where a high-power electric thruster prototype his team developed was being put to the test in February 2026. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech<h2>Powering up</h2>Electric propulsion uses up to 90% less propellant than traditional, high-thrust chemical rockets. Current electric propulsion thrusters, like those powering NASA’s Psyche mission, use solar power to accelerate propellants, producing a low, continuous thrust that reaches high speeds over time. NASA JPL is testing a lithium-fed magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) thruster, a technology that has been researched since the 1960s but never flown operationally. The MPD engine differs from existing thrusters by using high currents interacting with a magnetic field to electromagnetically accelerate lithium plasma.During the test, the team achieved power levels of up to 120 kilowatts. That’s over 25 times the power of the thrusters on Psyche, which is currently operating the highest-power electric thrusters of any NASA spacecraft. In the vacuum of space, the gentle but steady force Psyche’s thrusters provide over time accelerates the spacecraft to 124,000 mph.“Designing and building these thrusters over the last couple of years has been a long lead-up to this first test,” said James Polk, senior research scientist at JPL. “It’s a huge moment for us because we not only showed the thruster works, but we also hit the power levels we were targeting. And we know we have a good testbed to begin addressing the challenges to scaling up.”<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1778594309340-e2-MPD_comet.width-1320.jpg" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" />The prototype thruster is enclosed in JPL’s condensable metal propellant (CoMeT) vacuum facility, a unique national asset designed to safely test thrusters using metal-vapor propellants as part of potential megawatt-class electric propulsion systems. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech<h2>Going electric</h2>To view the test, Polk peered through a small portal into the 26-foot-long (8-meter-long) water-cooled vacuum chamber. Inside, the thruster flared to life, its nozzle-shaped outer electrode glowing incandescent as it emitted a vibrant red plume. Polk has researched lithium-fed MPD thrusters for decades, having worked on NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/dawn/">Dawn</a> mission and the agency’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/deep-space-1/">Deep Space 1</a>, the first demonstration of electric propulsion beyond Earth orbit.The team aims to reach power levels between 500 kilowatts and 1 megawatt per thruster in coming years. Because the hardware operates at such high temperatures, proving the components can withstand the heat over many hours of testing will be a key challenge. A human mission to Mars might need 2 to 4 megawatts of power, requiring multiple MPD thrusters, which would have to operate for more than 23,000 hours.Lithium-fed MPD thrusters have the potential to operate at high power levels, use propellant efficiently, and provide significantly greater thrust than currently flying electric thrusters. Fully developed and paired with a nuclear power source, they could reduce launch mass and support payloads required for human Mars missions.The MPD thruster work, in development for the past 2½ years, is led by JPL in collaboration with Princeton University in New Jersey and NASA’s Glenn Research Center in Cleveland. It is funded by NASA’s Space Nuclear Propulsion project, which in 2020 began supporting a megawatt-class nuclear electric propulsion program for human Mars missions by focusing on five critical technology elements, of which the electric propulsion subsystem is one. The project, based at the agency’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, is part of the NASA’s Space Technology Mission Directorate.

A novel electromagnetic thruster passed an initial test in a specialized chamber at JPL. With further development, these thrusters could support human missions to the Red Planet.

NASA Fires Up Powerful Lithium-Fed Thruster for Trips to Mars

Humanity’s drive to explore has taken us across the solar system, with astronaut boots, various landers and rovers’ wheels exploring the surfaces of several different planetary bodies. These environments are generally hostile to human and equipment health, so designing and executing these missions requires a lot of planning, testing and technological development.You may have heard about the extensive <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/setmo/facilities/">testing facilities for spacecraft and equipment</a>, but how do scientists prepare for the human aspect of space exploration?One way to test out techniques and identify situations that may arise during a real mission is using a simulation, which in this field is more commonly <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/analog-missions/">known as an analog</a>. Researchers choose and design analog missions and environments to replicate elements of a real mission, using what is available here on Earth.These missions are conducted in extreme environments on Earth that are comparable to the Moon or Mars, in habitats designed to replicate living quarters, or a combination of both. Researchers can use analogs to study crew performance and procedures, or to test instruments <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fM7OdOiElbk">under development for use in space</a>.For example, operating a drill or wrench may seem easy here on Earth, but try doing the same task in thick gloves on a bulky, pressurized space suit in lower gravity. <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hubble/nasa-innovative-tools-for-an-out-of-this-world-job/">Suddenly, things aren’t so straightforward</a>. Testing these scenarios on Earth allows researchers to identify necessary changes before launch. The analogs can also train crew members who will one day undertake the actual mission.I’m a planetary scientist, which means I study the geology of other planets. Currently, I study environments on Earth that are similar to other planets to improve our understanding of their counterparts elsewhere in the solar system. I participated as a volunteer in one of these analog missions as an “analog astronaut,” serving as the crew geologist and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ww-fObYAAAAJ&amp;hl=en">applying my prior research findings</a> from studying the <a href="https://npp.orau.org/experiences/jordan-bretzfelder.html">surfaces of the Moon and Mars</a>.These analog missions vary in setting, length and intensity, but all aim to learn more about the human factors involved in space exploration.<h2>Where Do We Send Them?</h2>Analog missions are designed to simulate the crew’s experience in a given mission plan. In some cases, they simulate surface operations on the Moon or Mars for up to a year. Others might replicate the experience of being in transit to Mars for a period of time, followed by the crew “landing” and exploring the surface.NASA uses several analog mission facilities spread across the world. For example, the <a href="https://mars-desert-research-station.raisely.com/MDRS">Mars Desert Research Station</a> in Utah is located in an environment chosen to imitate conditions on Mars, while <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/missions/analog-field-testing/neemo/about-neemo-nasa-extreme-environment-mission-operations/">analog missions at Aquarius</a>, an undersea research station off the coast of Florida, help scientists learn about crew behavior and psychology in a confined habitat located in a hostile environment.Some natural environments are commonly used for analog operations, such as <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/nasa-field-geology-training-prepares-artemis-mission-support-teams/">volcanic terrains</a> in the western U.S., <a href="https://st.llnl.gov/news/look-back/apollo-astronauts-train-nevada-test-site">human-made craters in Nevada</a>, the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vZwa5kEaNTY">natural meteor crater in Arizona</a> <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/antarctic-stations/">and research stations in Antarctica</a>. These locations mirror the geologic settings the crews are likely to encounter on future missions, and so training in these locations helps them execute the actual missions.I participated in a simulated 28-day lunar surface mission at a facility called <a href="https://www.hi-seas.org/">Hi-SEAS</a> as part of <a href="https://www.sift.net/research/computational-social-science/medulla">a study on crew dynamics and psychology</a> in extreme isolation. The facility is located on Mauna Loa, a volcano on the big island of Hawaii. This habitat has been used for a variety of studies, as the volcanic terrain is reminiscent of both the Moon and parts of Mars, and the isolated location simulates being in space.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1761757922979-ezgif-89230ebae26641.jpg" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" />The HI-SEAS Habitat, which recreates the conditions of living and working on the Moon, is located in Mauna Loa, Hawaii. Jordan Bretzfelder<h2 id="isPasted">Analog Mission Crews</h2>Most missions require applicants to hold relevant degrees. They must undergo physical health and psychiatric evaluations, with the goal being to select individuals with <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/astronauts/become-an-astronaut/">similar backgrounds</a> to those in the astronaut corps. The ideal crew is typically made up of participants who work and live well with others, and can stay cool under stress.Crews also include at least one person with medical training for emergencies, as well as a variety of scientists and engineers to operate the habitat’s life support systems.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1761757966343-ezgif-82c03ff99e9e0b.jpg" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" />Special suits were required whenever researchers left the habitat. They consisted of flight suits, protective pads, thick motorcycle gloves and a modified helmet with an air pump unit attached, housed in a backpack. Ensuring the suits and air systems were functioning before and during these short expeditions was critical. Jordan BretzfelderThe experiences of each crew varies, depending on the mission design, location and makeup of the crew. My mission was designed so that the six crew members would not have any information about our crewmates until we arrived in Hawaii for training. In addition to geology expertise, I also have some medical training as <a href="https://wildmed.com/courses/standard/5-day-wilderness-first-responder/">a Wilderness First Responder</a>, so I was there to assist with any medical issues.<h2>Daily Life On An Analog Mission</h2>Once in Hawaii, the crew spent three days learning how to operate the habitat systems, including the hydroponic garden and solar panels. We practiced emergency procedures and were taught how to perform other tasks.After that orientation, we were deployed to the habitat for 28 days. We turned in our phones to mission control and could only access the internet to check emails or use a few preapproved websites required for our daily duties. Our days were scheduled with tasks from wake up, about 6:30 a.m., to lights out, about 10 p.m.The tasks included a variety of exercises to assess individual and group performance. They included individual assessments – similar to a daily IQ test – and group computer-based tasks, <a href="https://www.sift.net/demos/medulla-cubecrusher">such as team 3D Tetris</a>. The researchers remotely monitored our interactions during these activities, and the results were analyzed as the mission progressed. They used our fluctuating performance on these activities as a proxy for estimating stress levels, group cohesion and individual well-being.Additionally, we went on two-to-three-hour extra-vehicular activities, or excursions outside the habitat, on alternating days. During these expeditions, we conducted geologic investigations on the volcano. On our “off days,” we spent two hours exercising in the habitat. We had to be fully suited in a mock spacesuit any time we went outside, and we had to be careful about the airlock procedures. We were never outdoors alone.We could only eat freeze-dried and powdered foods, aside from what we were able to grow in the hydroponic system. We had no additional food delivered during our stay. Water was also rationed, meaning we had to find innovative ways to maintain personal hygiene. For example, a bucket shower one or two times per week was allowed, supplemented by “wilderness wipe” baths. As someone with a lot of very curly hair, I was happy to figure out a method for managing it using less than two liters of water per week. We were also permitted to do laundry once during our stay, as a group. Sorting through your crewmates’ wet clothes was certainly one way to bond.Though physically demanding at times, the workload was not unreasonable. We were kept busy all day, as certain everyday tasks, such as cooking, required more effort than they might need in our normal lives. Preparing nutritionally balanced and palatable meals while rationing our very limited resources was hard, but it also provided opportunities to get creative with recipes and ingredients. We even managed to bake a cake for a crew member’s birthday, using peanut butter protein and cocoa powders to flavor it.After dinner each night, we shared the pre-saved movies and shows we had each brought with us into the habitat, as we could not access the internet. Those of us who had brought physical copies of books into the habitat would trade those as well. One crew member managed to acquire a downloadable form of <a href="https://mashable.com/article/wordle-word-game-what-is-it-explained">the daily Wordle</a>, so we could still compete with our friends back home. We also played board games, and all of these activities helped us get to know each other.Though different from our typical daily lives, the experience was one of a kind. We had the satisfaction of knowing that our efforts advanced space exploration in its own small way, one IQ test and slapdash cake at a time.

Analog missions, like those conducted at NASA’s CHAPEA facility at the Johnson Space Center, help scientists study human spaceflight without leaving Earth. Ronaldo Schemidt/AFP via Getty Images

Humanity's drive to explore has taken us across the solar system, with astronaut boots, various landers and rovers' wheels exploring the surfaces of several different planetary bodies.

Space Exploration in the Backyard, On a Budget – How NASA Simulates Conditions in Space Without Blasting Off

Spirals of solar wind can spin off larger solar eruptions and disrupt Earth’s magnetic field, yet they are too difficult to detect with our current single-location warning system, according to a new study from the University of Michigan. But a constellation of spacecraft, including one that sails on sunlight, could help find the tornado-like features in time to protect equipment on Earth and in orbit. The study results come from computer simulations of a massive cloud of plasma erupting from the sun and moving through the solar system. Because the simulation covers features that span distances three times Earth’s diameter down to thousands of miles, the researchers could determine how smaller, tornado-like spirals of plasma and magnetic field—called flux ropes—become concerning features in their own right.<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/x4pLV-qpdNo?&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0"></iframe>“Our simulation shows that the magnetic field in these vortices can be strong enough to trigger a geomagnetic storm and cause some real trouble,” said <a href="https://clasp.engin.umich.edu/people/manchester-ward-b/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chip Manchester</a>, research professor of climate and space sciences and engineering and the corresponding author of the study published in the Astrophysical Journal.In May 2024, <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/science-research/heliophysics/what-nasa-is-learning-from-the-biggest-geomagnetic-storm-in-20-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a geomagnetic storm</a> tripped high-voltage power lines, disrupted satellite orbits,and forced some airplanes to change course. It also scrambled navigation systems on tractors in the Midwest, which NASA says cost each affected farm $17,000 in damages, on average. For both scientific curiosity and better warning systems ahead of these events, NASA and the National Science Foundation funded this U-M study.Geomagnetic storms are triggered by magnetic fields in the solar wind, a bubble of plasma that flows outward from the sun and envelops the solar system. Like wind on Earth, the solar wind blows in varying patterns that comprise space weather. Eruptions at the sun create the most extreme space weather—dense, fast-moving clouds of plasma called coronal mass ejections that span <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2007GL032045" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">34 million miles, on average</a>. But scientists have also noticed relatively small flux ropes in the solar wind, between 3,000 and 6 million miles wide. These features are too small for typical simulations of coronal mass ejections, which could only produce features larger than 7 million miles wide, but they are also too large for simulations often used to study magnetic fields and plasma particles in the solar wind. The new simulation allows researchers to see these features of intermediate size along with large coronal mass ejections.The U-M simulation suggested that the tornado-like flux ropes form out of the coronal mass ejections as they drive through slower solar wind, flinging aside spinning masses of plasma like a snowplow tossing snow. Some tornadoes dissipate, but more persistent vortices can form during collisions with neighboring streams of fast and slow solar wind. <a href="https://sci.esa.int/web/soho/-/47806-lasco-c2-image-of-a-cme" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Telescopes pointing at the sun</a> look for eruptions to warn of bad space weather, but for flux ropes, the researchers say that’s not enough.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1759794631015-Coronal-mass-ejection-solar-sail.jpg" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" />A computer-generated image shows where rotating magnetic fields form at the edges of a coronal mass ejection 15 hours after a solar eruption. The coronal mass ejection is the large bubble extending from the sun at the left edge of the image. Two streams of plasma extend from the edge of the coronal mass ejection as it hits neighboring streams of fast and slow solar wind. Shades of red and yellow depict the strength and orientation of the plasma’s magnetic field (labeled “Bz” in the figure legend). Shades of red represent plasma that could trigger geomagnetic storms if it hits Earth, while shades of yellow represent plasma with a strong, positive orientation. The red-brown circle around the sun shows the area not covered by the simulation, about ten million miles wide. ILLUSTRATION: Chip Manchester, University of Michigan.“If there are hazards forming out in space between the sun and Earth, we can’t just look at the sun,” said study co-author <a href="https://clasp.engin.umich.edu/people/akhavan-tafti-mojtaba/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mojtaba Akhavan-Tafti</a>, associate research scientist of climate and space sciences and engineering. “This is a matter of national security. We need to proactively find structures like these Earth-bound flux ropes and predict what they will look like at Earth to make reliable space weather warnings for electric grid planners, airline dispatchers and farmers.”The solar wind can only trigger geomagnetic storms when its magnetic field has a strong southward orientation. Spacecraft stationed between Earth and the sun already help scientists make space weather warnings by measuring the speed of the solar wind, as well as the strength and direction of its magnetic field. But a solar eruption aimed away from Earth, or with northward-pointing magnetic fields, might still toss vortices with southward-pointing magnetic fields toward Earth. Those tornadoes would go unnoticed if they miss the probes stationed at L1.“Imagine if you could only monitor a hurricane remotely with the measurements from one wind gauge,” Manchester said. “You’d see a change in the measurements, but you wouldn’t see the storm’s entire structure. That’s the current situation with single-spacecraft systems. We need viewpoints from multiple space weather stations.”<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1759794652994-Flux-rope-CME-nose-solar-sail.jpg" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" />A computer-generated image shows how the stream of plasma extending from the coronal mass ejection stirs up tornado-like flux ropes 40 hours after the initial eruption. The tornadoes appear as vortices in the image because the columns extend toward the viewer. The tip of the plasma stream that originates from the coronal mass ejection is in yellow, and the two other flux ropes are shown as red spirals below and to the right of the yellow plasma. Shades of red and yellow depict the strength and orientation of the plasma’s magnetic field (labeled “Bz” in the figure legend). Shades of red represent plasma that could trigger geomagnetic storms if it hits Earth, while shades of yellow represent plasma with a strong, positive orientation. ILLUSTRATION: Chip Manchester, University of Michigan.The researchers hope to provide that multiprobe view of solar tornadoes with a constellation of spacecraft called the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576525004679?casa_token=yUyz-vvoLK0AAAAA:GxeOGLTgBp2s-eD-Y24sXDMSfYoygvn49nmRD6Z75fN4MrQXk1Pq5UITL7DDpKGN0KF4IqnnEv4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space Weather Investigation Frontier,</a> or SWIFT, which was developed in a NASA mission concept study led by Akhavan-Tafti.In the current proposal, four probes would be stationed in a triangular-pyramid formation, around 200,000 miles apart. Three identical probes would occupy each corner of the pyramid’s base, located in a plane around L1. A final “hub spacecraft,” located beyond L1, would serve as the pyramid’s apex, pointing toward the sun. This configuration would allow SWIFT to see how the solar wind changes on its way to Earth, and its hub closer to the sun could make space weather warnings 40% faster.The apex’s location would normally require an impractical amount of fuel to fight the sun’s gravity, but NASA engineers, through their <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/heliophysics/programs/technology/solar-cruiser/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar Cruiser mission</a>, designed an aluminum sail that could enable the probe to park beyond L1. The sail would cover about a third of a football field, allowing it to catch enough photons to maintain the spacecraft’s position without burning fuel.

A spacecraft that sails on light could provide new vantage point on solar eruptions that can disrupt modern electrical and navigation systems.

We need a solar sail probe to detect space tornadoes

In space, maintenance isn't possible, so satellites must operate reliably for their entire mission. This makes fault detection, isolation, and recovery (FDIR) a critical requirement in satellite design.

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