Explore the essence of passivation, a pivotal technique in metalworking that bolsters material longevity and shields against corrosion. This article delves into the process of passivation and its applications in engineering and manufacturing.

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The market for additive printed circuit boards (PCBs) and flexible electronics is full of possibilities, with applications including IoT-connected skin patches, environmental sensing devices, flexible electronic displays, and much more. However, making such devices requires a carefully developed selection of materials (not all of which are electrically conductive). This article provides an overview of three key groups of materials required for additive PCBs and flexible electronics: conductive inks, substrates, and solder pastes. Throughout the article, we look at the most important materials within each group and see how additive PCB pioneer <a href="https://hubs.ly/Q02hPg450" target="_blank">Voltera</a> is pushing electronics material possibilities to the limit.<h1 dir="ltr">Conductive Inks in Additive Manufacturing: Making Prints Electronic</h1>A conductive ink is a type of functional ink that can conduct electricity after it has been printed and processed. Printing involves depositing the ink in a computer-specified pattern with a dedicated machine, and processing typically involves applying heat to the printed pattern. Once processed, the ink can carry electrons from one place to another.Conductive inks are made up of several components. The conductive element or filler must be a conductive material like silver, copper, or graphene particles. However, for the ink to flow freely and be accurately printable, it needs to contain many other components too, components collectively known as the vehicle. These ingredients may include binders to give the ink its polymeric backbone, solvents to dissolve the other components, and dispersants to help the ink flow and cure.<h2 dir="ltr">Types of Conductive Inks</h2><ul><li dir="ltr">Silver: Perhaps the most important type of conductive ink for additive PCBs and flexible electronics is silver ink. This is partly due to the good conductive properties of silver and partly because of its ubiquity: silver inks are widely available and inexpensive, allowing for low-cost printed electronics like sensors and antennae.</li><li dir="ltr">Copper: An alternative to silver ink is copper ink. Copper is also a conductive metal and is consequently used in traditional PCB production techniques like etching. However, because it oxidizes when cured in air, it requires extra processing which can increase the overall cost of printing.</li><li dir="ltr">Carbon: Materials like carbon black, carbon nanotubes, and graphene — a carbon allotrope with a very high level of conductivity — can also be used as fillers in conductive inks, with almost limitless potential uses. Electronics applications include sensors, resistors, and heating elements.</li><li dir="ltr">Conductive Polymers: Certain polymers such as polythiophene can be used as conductive printable inks. These polymers become conductive when they are oxidized due to the delocalization of their electrons.</li></ul><h2 dir="ltr">Innovative Materials and Future Trends</h2>Inks used in printed electronics are not just limited to conductivity. Other applications include the use of electroluminescent inks such as those developed by <a href="https://www.saralon.com/en/" target="_blank">Saralon</a>, which emit light when an electrical current passes through them.&nbsp;<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Yc8nEoVnpDY?&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</iframe>By printing with these inks, it is possible to create an Electroluminescent Displays (ELD) on a substrate. Another exciting area of printed electronics is the creation of bioelectronic medical devices. Researchers have had some success developing biocompatible inks that are both conductive and harmless to cells.<h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Popular Conductive Inks</h2><div dir="ltr" align="center"><table><tbody><tr><td>Manufacturer</td><td>Conductive Ink</td><td>Filler</td><td>Advantages</td></tr><tr><td>Voltera</td><td>Conductor 3</td><td>Silver</td><td>Rapid curing, no burnishing</td></tr><tr><td>ACI Materials</td><td>SS1109</td><td>Silver</td><td>Stretchable for elastomeric substrates</td></tr><tr><td>Copprint</td><td>LF-360</td><td>Copper</td><td>Patented sintering agent that prevents oxidation</td></tr><tr><td>Celanese</td><td>Micromax 7082</td><td>Carbon</td><td>Custom resistance blends</td></tr><tr><td>Saralon</td><td>Saral BluePhosphorL 800</td><td>Silver</td><td>Electroluminescent blue light</td></tr><tr><td>Henkel Adhesives</td><td>LOCTITE EDAG 7019 E&amp;C</td><td>Silver and Silver Chloride</td><td>Non-toxic and suitable for medical applications</td></tr><tr><td>Creative Materials</td><td>128-24</td><td>Gold</td><td>Highly conductive</td></tr></tbody></table></div><h2>Substrates: The Foundation of Flexible Electronics</h2>Conductive inks open up a world of opportunities in additive PCBs and electronics. But electronics printing works differently compared to ordinary additive manufacturing: you cannot print an entire device out of conductive ink. Instead, the ink needs to be printed onto something. The durable material required here is known as the substrate, and it forms the foundation of flexible electronics and other devices.As with conductive inks, there are several options to choose from when it comes to the substrate. Established types of rigid substrates include FR4, a glass-reinforced epoxy laminate, and FR1, a low-cost alternative made of paper and phenolic resin.While rigid substrates are incredibly useful, one of the most exciting applications of printed electronics is the use of flexible substrates for devices like wearables. Flexible substrates can endure bending and various motions while maintaining functionality. They include films, foils, and even paper (electronic RFID tags are regularly printed on paper transit tickets, for example). Flexible substrates require specially developed conductive inks that will not crack or deform when the substrate bends.Some flexible substrates can also be classified as stretchable substrates. Unlike papers and foils, these materials have good tensile strength and can have additional uses in printed electronics. However, it can be slightly harder to match stretchable substrates with a suitable ink; this is because the ink must stretch congruently with the substrate to avoid circuit breakage and separation from the underlying substrate or layer. When choosing a stretchable substrate like TPU, the ink must be carefully selected to accommodate its stretchability.<h2 dir="ltr">Types of Flexible Substrates</h2><ul><li dir="ltr">PI (Kapton): Polyimide films possess excellent thermal stability, electrical insulation, and flexibility, making them a good choice for applications like flexible displays and flexible batteries. Though polyimide is its scientific name, the material is referred to as Kapton, a brand name owned by DuPont.</li><li dir="ltr">PET: Polyethylene terephthalate, the most widely used material in the polyester family, is commonly used to make items like single-use water bottles. However, it also makes an excellent flexible substrate for flexible electronics like force-sensitive resistors. It is recyclable and more affordable than polyimide but less thermally stable.</li><li dir="ltr">TPU: Thermoplastic polyurethane makes a very good substrate for flexible and stretchable electronics due to its elasticity and resistance to abrasion and oil. Its rubber-like consistency makes it suitable for wearable electronics like smart watches and even textile-based smart clothing.</li></ul><h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Popular Substrates</h2><div dir="ltr" align="center"><table><tbody><tr><td style="width: 21.6511%;">Manufacturer</td><td style="width: 21.6511%;">Substrate</td><td style="width: 16.3551%;">Material</td><td style="width: 40.3427%;">Advantages</td></tr><tr><td style="width: 21.6511%;">DuPont</td><td style="width: 21.6511%;">Kapton FPC</td><td style="width: 16.3551%;">Polyimide</td><td style="width: 40.3427%;">Excellent dimensional stability and adhesion</td></tr><tr><td style="width: 21.6511%;">Polyonics</td><td style="width: 21.6511%;">XF102</td><td style="width: 16.3551%;">Polyimide</td><td style="width: 40.3427%;">High level flexibility and temperature resistance</td></tr><tr><td style="width: 21.6511%;">BEYOLEX (Panasonic)</td><td style="width: 21.6511%;">MUAS13111AA</td><td style="width: 16.3551%;">Thermoset film</td><td style="width: 40.3427%;">Suitable for stretchable electronics</td></tr><tr><td style="width: 21.6511%;">Insulectro</td><td style="width: 21.6511%;">Intexar TE-11C</td><td style="width: 16.3551%;">TPU</td><td style="width: 40.3427%;">Suitable for smart clothing</td></tr></tbody></table></div><h2>Solder Paste: The Secret Sauce for Printed Electronics</h2>We have so far looked at two very important groups of materials in PCBs and flexible electronics: the conductive inks that allow for the transfer of electrons and the substrates upon which these inks can be deposited in a specific pattern (and which can sometimes bend and stretch for added functionality). A third material, less glamorous but no less important, is solder paste. This critical substance allows PCB designers to add pre-existing electronic components onto their boards.Solder is a metal alloy that can be fused to bond two pieces of metal. In many industries, a solder bar or wire is used in conjunction with a tool like a soldering iron or gun and a separate wetting agent called flux. In printed electronics, things are done a little differently. Here, solder paste — containing powdered solder and flux (which acts as a cleaning, flowing, and purifying agent) already mixed together — is deposited alongside conductive inks onto the substrate. After its application alongside conductive inks on the substrate, the solder paste undergoes a reflow process. During reflow, the assembly is heated, causing the solder paste to melt and flow — forming solid, electrically conductive connections upon cooling. The solder itself typically contains tin and other metals.<h1 dir="ltr">Voltera’s Approach to PCBs and Flexible Electronics</h1>Additive electronics expert <a href="https://hubs.ly/Q02hPg450" target="_blank">Voltera</a>, based in Canada, develops printers that dispense conductive inks for PCBs and functional electronic devices. Its <a href="https://www.voltera.io/v-one?utm_campaign=Wevolver&utm_source=Blog&utm_content=V-One" target="_blank">V-One PCB printer</a> lets users prototype printed circuit boards in less than an hour, while its <a href="https://www.voltera.io/nova?utm_campaign=Wevolver&utm_source=Blog&utm_content=NOVA" target="_blank">NOVA materials dispensing system</a> can print a wide array of conductive materials onto a range of substrates, including flexible, stretchable, and porous materials. Both machines also deposit solder paste, allowing for the creation of functional electronics.In terms of the specific inks, substrates, and solder pastes that the V-One and NOVA use to make PCBs and flexible electronics, perhaps the most important material of all is <a href="https://store.voltera.io/products/conductor-3-ink-cartridge-2ml?_pos=1&_sid=92a745f26&_ss=r" target="_blank">Conductor 3</a>. Voltera’s own silver-based conductive ink formulation boasts a 30-minute curing time, a low soldering temperature of 180°C, and compatibility with rigid and flexible substrates. Importantly, however, NOVA is also compatible with other screen-printable inks.Voltera also brings a new level of substrate flexibility to flexible substrates. NOVA’s vacuum table creates uniform suction which keeps flexible and soft substrates in place, enabling high-precision printing upon the chosen material, while a Smart Probe maps the height of the substrate. There is also a threaded mounting grid to secure custom rigid substrates of different shapes and sizes.&nbsp;Finally, both Voltera systems offer precision solder paste deposition, with the company offering tin-lead eutectic alloy and a tin-bismuth-silver alloy in T4 or T5 particle sizes, so users can solder components to their boards with precision.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzE0OTk5NzU3MDM2LWludGVybmFsIHZvbHRlcmEuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" width="624" height="351" class="fr-fic fr-dii">Voltera enables the streamlining of research and development with direct-ink-write dispensing. Credit: Voltera<h2 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h2>The PCB and flexible electronics industry moves at a fast pace. Material scientists are constantly seeking solutions to current challenges in order to evolve the technology and create electronics with greater functionality, longevity, and sustainability. And with interest rising in products like flexible displays, wearable technology, and flexible photovoltaics, the demand for printed electronics materials — inks, substrates, and pastes alike — will continue to grow.

PCBs printed onto flexible substrates demonstrate huge potential across a range of industries. But what are the materials used to make these printed devices?

The Building Blocks of Innovation: Inks, Substrates, and Solder Pastes for Additive PCBs and Flexible Electronics

What factors determine how quickly a battery can be charged? Researchers at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) are investigating these and other questions using computer-aided simulations. Microstructure models help to discover and investigate new electrode materials. For sodium-nickel-manganese oxide as cathode material in sodium-ion batteries, the simulations show changes in the crystal structure during the charging process. They lead to elastic deformation, which shrinks the capacity. The researchers report in the journal&nbsp;npj Computational Materials . (&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41524-024-01258-x" target="_blank">DOI: 10.1038/s41524-024-01258-x</a> )&nbsp;Research into new battery materials is not only aimed at optimizing performance and service life and reducing costs. Rather, it is also about reducing rare elements such as lithium and cobalt as well as toxic components. Sodium-ion batteries, which are based on similar principles to lithium-ion batteries but can be produced from raw materials that are sufficiently available in Europe, are considered promising. They are suitable for stationary and mobile applications. “Layered oxides such as sodium-nickel-manganese oxides are promising as materials for the cathode,” reports Dr. Simon Daubner, group leader at the Institute for Applied Materials – Microstructure Modeling and Simulation (IAM-MMS) at KIT and corresponding author of the study. In the Cluster of Excellence POLiS (stands for:&nbsp;Post Lithium Storage ) he researches sodium ion technology.<h2>Mechanical stress occurs during fast charging</h2>However, there is a problem with these cathode materials: sodium-nickel-manganese oxides change their crystal structure depending on how much sodium is currently stored. If the material is loaded slowly, everything goes smoothly. “The sodium comes out of the material layer by layer – like in a parking garage that is emptying floor by floor,” explains Daubner. “But if things have to happen quickly, the sodium is pulled out from all sides.” This leads to mechanical stresses that can permanently damage the material.&nbsp;Researchers at the Institute for Nanotechnology (INT) and at the IAM-MMS at KIT, together with scientists at the University of Ulm and at the Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Württemberg (ZSW), have now uncovered these connections using simulations and are reporting about it in npj Computational Materials, a journal from the Nature portfolio.<h2>Experiments confirm simulation results</h2>“Computer models can describe different length scales, from the arrangement of atoms in electrode materials to their microstructure to the cell as a functional unit of every battery,” says Daubner. These combine microstructure models with slow charge and discharge experiments to investigate the layered oxide NaXNi1/3Mn2/3O2. The material has several degradation mechanisms that lead to loss of capacity. Therefore, it is currently not suitable for commercial applications. When the crystal structure changes, elastic deformation occurs. The crystal shrinks, which can cause cracks and reduce available capacity. As simulations carried out at INT and IAM-MMS showed, this mechanical influence is so strong that it significantly influences how quickly the material can be loaded. Experimental studies at ZSW confirmed the results.The findings gained in the study can partly be transferred to other layered oxides. “Now that we understand the basic processes, we can devote further work to developing battery materials that are long-lasting and can be charged as quickly as possible,” summarizes Daubner. This could make the large-scale use of sodium-ion batteries a reality in five to ten years.<hr>Original publication (Open Access):Simon Daubner, Manuel Dillenz, Lukas Fridolin Pfeiffer, Cornelius Gauckler, Maxim Rosin, Nora Burgard, Jan Martin, Peter Axmann, Mohsen Sotoudeh, Axel Groß, Daniel Schneider, Britta Nestler: Combined study of phase transitions in the P2-type NaXNi1/3Mn2 /3O2 cathode material: experimental, ab-initio and multiphase-field results. npj Computational Materials, 2024. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41524-024-01258-x" target="_blank">DOI: 10.1038/s41524-024-01258-x</a><a href="https://www.postlithiumstorage.org/" target="_blank">Information about the Cluster of Excellence POLiS</a>

Cathode layer, consisting of spherical particles, as well as simulation of the sodium content. (detailed caption at the end of the text. Graphics: Simon Daubner, KIT)

Microstructure simulations reveal strong influence of elastic deformation on charging behavior of layered oxides as cathode in sodium-ion batteries

Batteries: Modeling tomorrow's materials today

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Electrostatic capacitors play a crucial role in modern electronics. They enable ultrafast charging and discharging, providing energy storage and power for devices ranging from smartphones, laptops and routers to medical devices, automotive electronics and industrial equipment. However, the ferroelectric materials used in capacitors have significant energy loss due to their material properties, making it difficult to provide high energy storage capability.&nbsp;<a href="https://engineering.wustl.edu/faculty/Sang-Hoon-Bae.html" target="_blank">Sang-Hoon Bae</a>, assistant professor of mechanical engineering &amp; materials science in the McKelvey School of Engineering at Washington University in St. Louis, has addressed this long-standing challenge in deploying ferroelectric materials for energy storage applications. In a study published April 18 in&nbsp;<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adl2835" target="_blank">Science</a>, Bae and his collaborators, including&nbsp;<a href="https://engineering.wustl.edu/faculty/Rohan-Mishra.html" target="_blank">Rohan Mishra</a>, associate professor of mechanical engineering &amp; materials science, and&nbsp;<a href="https://engineering.wustl.edu/faculty/Chuan-Wang.html" target="_blank">Chuan Wang</a>, associate professor of electrical &amp; systems engineering, both at WashU, and&nbsp;<a href="https://dmse.mit.edu/faculty/frances-ross/" target="_blank">Frances Ross</a>, the TDK Professor in Materials Science and Engineering at MIT, introduced an approach to control the relaxation time – an internal material property that describes how long it takes for charge to dissipate or decay – of ferroelectric capacitors using 2D materials.&nbsp;Working with Bae, doctoral student Justin S. Kim and postdoctoral researcher Sangmoon Han developed novel 2D/3D/2D heterostructures that can minimize energy loss while preserving the advantageous material properties of ferroelectric 3D materials. Their approach cleverly sandwiches 2D and 3D materials in atomically thin layers with carefully engineered chemical and nonchemical bonds between each layer. A very thin 3D core is inserted between two outer 2D layers to create a stack only about 30 nanometers thick. That’s about one-tenth the size of an average virus particle.&nbsp;“We created a new structure based on the&nbsp;<a href="https://engineering.wustl.edu/news/2023/2D-material-reshapes-3D-electronics-for-AI-hardware.html" target="_blank">innovations we’ve already made in my lab involving 2D materials</a>,” Bae said. “Initially, we weren’t focused on energy storage, but during our exploration of material properties, we found a new physical phenomenon that we realized could be applied to energy storage, and that was both very interesting and potentially much more useful.”The 2D/3D/2D heterostructures are finely crafted to sit in the sweet spot between conductivity and nonconductivity where semiconducting materials have optimal electric properties for energy storage. With this design, Bae and his collaborators reported an energy density up to 19 times higher than commercially available ferroelectric capacitors, and they achieved an efficiency over 90%, which is also unprecedented.“We found that dielectric relaxation time can be modulated or induced by a very small gap in the material structure,” Bae explained. “That new physical phenomenon is something we hadn’t seen before. It enables us to manipulate dielectric material in such a way that it doesn’t polarize and lose charge capability.”As the world grapples with the imperative of&nbsp;<a href="https://engineering.wustl.edu/news/2023/Groundbreaking-work-for-high-quality-2D-materials-growth.html" target="_blank">transitioning toward next-generation electronics components</a>, Bae's novel heterostructure material paves the way for high-performance electronic devices, encompassing high-power electronics, high-frequency wireless communication systems, and integrated circuit chips. These advancements are particularly crucial in sectors requiring robust power management solutions, such as electric vehicles and infrastructure development.“Fundamentally, this structure we’ve developed is a novel electronic material,” Bae said. “We’re not yet 100% optimal, but already we’re outperforming what other labs are doing. Our next steps will be to make this material structure even better, so we can meet the need for ultrafast charging and discharging and very high energy densities in capacitors. We must be able to do that without losing storage capacity over repeated charges to see this material used broadly in large electronics, like electric vehicles, and other developing green technologies.”<hr>Han S, Kim JS, Park E, Meng Y, Xu Z, Foucher AC, Jung GY, Roh I, Lee S, Kim SO, Moon JY, Kim SI, Bae S, Zhang X, Park BI, Seo S, Li Y, Shin H, Reidy K, Hoang AT, Sundaram S, Vuong P, Kim C, Zhao J, Hwang J, Wang C, Choi H, Kim DH, Kwon J, Park JH, Ougazzaden A, Lee JH, Ahn JH, Kim J, Mishra R, Kim HS, Ross FM, and Bae SH. High energy density in artificial heterostructures through relaxation time modulation.&nbsp;Science, April 18, 2024. DOI: <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adl2835" target="_blank">https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adl2835</a>&nbsp;

Artificial heterostructures made of freestanding 2D and 3D membranes developed by Sang-Hoon Bae’s lab have an energy density up to 19 times higher than commercially available capacitors. (Credit: Bae Lab)

Sang-Hoon Bae developed heterostructures with material properties optimal for high-density energy storage, durable ultrafast charging

Novel material supercharges innovation in electrostatic energy storage

PCB or small components on flexible ribbon cables

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Isolated capacitor, used in electronic devices

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Explore the different types of solder, their unique properties, and their critical roles in various engineering applications. Understand how to choose the right solder for your project and the considerations involved.

Types of Solder: A Comprehensive Guide for Engineering Professionals

Zeroing in on which of our six <a href="https://www.protolabs.com/en-gb/services/3d-printing/?utm_source=wevolver&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=uk-3dp-0424&utm_content=wevolver-sla-vs-sls-blog-0424" title="3D Printing" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">3D printing technologies</a> you want to use is totally dependent on your project needs, part applications, material selection, and overall desired aesthetic. Two of our most popular 3D printing services, stereolithography (SLA) and selective laser sintering (SLS) offer engineering-grade options for parts.Before we dive into the options and benefits, let’s look at how each technology works. <h3 id="isPasted">Process Differences Between SLA and SLS</h3><a href="https://www.protolabs.com/en-gb/services/3d-printing/stereolithography/?utm_source=wevolver&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=uk-3dp-0424&utm_content=wevolver-sla-vs-sls-blog-0424" title="Stereolithography" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Stereolithography (SLA)</a>:&nbsp;With SLA, a laser unit bounces an ultraviolet (UV) beam off of a reflective mirror. The machine’s Galvo Motor System steers the focused beam to the design surface. The laser system first draws support structure layers, followed by actual part geometry. The UV laser solidifies and cures the liquid thermoset resin one layer at a time. After solvent processing to remove any additional resin, the support structures are removed manually.<a href="https://www.protolabs.com/en-gb/services/3d-printing/selective-laser-sintering/?utm_source=wevolver&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=uk-3dp-0424&utm_content=wevolver-sla-vs-sls-blog-0424" title="Selective Laser Sintering" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)</a>: SLS is a powder bed fusion additive process. A laser sinters each layer of part geometry using a bed of material-based powder. After each layer, a roller distributes the next layer of powder, and this process is repeated layer-by-layer until the build is complete. Finally, the part is manually removed from the powder and bead blasted in post-processing.How SLA works:<iframe src="https://fast.wistia.net/embed/iframe/1ye1g3wd0u" width="900" height="450" allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" class="wistia_embed fr-draggable" name="wistia_embed" allowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" webkitallowfullscreen="" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true">&nbsp;&nbsp;</iframe>How SLS Works:&nbsp;<iframe src="https://fast.wistia.net/embed/iframe/ranw97cko8" width="900" height="450" allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" class="wistia_embed fr-draggable" name="wistia_embed" allowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" webkitallowfullscreen="" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true">&nbsp;&nbsp;</iframe>&nbsp;<h3 id="isPasted">Analysing Application Needs</h3>Some common applications for parts made via SLA include cosmetic prototypes with a smooth surface finish, parts requiring high dimensional accuracy and intricate detail, and large parts. However, if durability is a key factor, SLS will likely be the more fitting process.SLS builds accurate prototypes and functional product parts, fast. One consideration to keep in mind: With SLS 3D printing, no support structures are required allowing for the option to include multiple parts into a single build; an economical solution when you need a large volume of 3D-printed parts. <h3 id="isPasted">Material Options for SLA and SLS</h3><a href="https://www.protolabs.com/en-gb/resources/design-tips/a-guide-to-stereolithography-3d-printing-materials/?utm_source=wevolver&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=uk-3dp-0424&utm_content=wevolver-sla-vs-sls-blog-0424" title="A Guide to Stereolithography 3D Printing Materials" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">SLA materials</a> are considered photopolymers, or thermoset resins that are in liquid form. SLA boasts the broadest selection of 3D-printable plastics with an impressive range of mechanical properties. Some of our thermoplastic-like materials include:<ul type="disc"><li>ABS-like</li><li>Polypropylene-like</li><li>Polycarbonate-like</li></ul>SLS materials originate as thermoplastic powders. In comparison to SLA materials, SLS material can build durable end-use parts. Some options include:<ul type="disc"><li>General purpose nylons (PA 12 Smooth White)</li><li>Filled materials (PA12 Carbon-filled Smooth Black, PA12 40% Glass-filled Smooth White)</li><li>Specialty materials (TPU 88-A Pure Black)</li></ul><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzEzOTU4MTcwMjM5LTE3MTM5NTgxNzAyMzkucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><h3 id="isPasted">SLA vs. SLS Surface Finishes</h3>In general, parts made using SLA offer smoother surface finishes compared to SLS- parts. Here are the options we offer for finished SLA parts:<table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" id="isPasted"><tbody><tr><td>Unfinished</td><td>Dots, or standing"nibs," remain evident on the bottom of the part from the support structure remnants.</td></tr><tr><td>Natural</td><td>Supported surfaces are sanded down to eliminate the support nibs.</td></tr><tr><td>Standard</td><td>Supported surfaces are sanded, and the entire part is finely blasted for a consistent look. Note that the layers are still present. &nbsp;For ABS-Like Black, parts will be painted after support removal; if final blasting is wanted, this must be specified while ordering (external surface will become grey)</td></tr></tbody></table>Surface finishes on SLS parts are typically rougher than SLA or other 3D printing technologies, but this service provides parts that are more durable and better suited for heat or chemical resistance. SLS also works well if flexibility or dimensional stability is needed. <h3 id="isPasted">Final Considerations for Choosing Between SLA and SLS</h3>Certain considerations like durability, resolution, or part size may make the decision for you when deciding between SLA or SLS 3D printing. Refer to the table below to see which process tends to win out over the other based on key factors. &nbsp;&nbsp;Durability and Strength: In general SLS builds more durable, higher strength parts due to the engineering-grade materials available and the fact that they are actual thermoplastics being sintered.Surface Finish:&nbsp;SLA will build parts with high quality, smoother surface finishes that more closely resemble an injection-molded parts.Resolution:&nbsp;SLA provides higher resolution compared to SLS. Our SLA 3D printing service offers three resolution options so you can balance detail and surface finish quality with cost.Tolerances:&nbsp;SLA will be capable of achieving tighter tolerances compared to SLS.Part Size: Our SLA printers have a larger build envelope than our SLS machines.Heat and Chemical Resistance: Thermoplastic SLS materials will have better overall heat and chemical resistance than SLA parts.We’ve covered a lot of ground here. Know that you’re not alone when you’re navigating and deciding which 3D printing process best suits your part needs. Our applications engineers are well-versed at helping you through the process, from design to finished part. Be sure to check out our design tips on <a href="https://www.protolabs.com/en-gb/resources/design-tips/designing-for-stereolithography/?utm_source=wevolver&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=uk-3dp-0424&utm_content=wevolver-sla-vs-sls-blog-0424" target="_blank" title="Designing for Stereolithography" rel="noopener noreferrer">stereolithography</a> and <a href="https://www.protolabs.com/en-gb/resources/design-tips/designing-for-selective-laser-sintering/?utm_source=wevolver&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=uk-3dp-0424&utm_content=wevolver-sla-vs-sls-blog-0424" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">selective laser sintering</a> for more useful tips and tricks. &nbsp;&nbsp;

Learn the key differences between two popular polymer 3D printing processes: Stereolithography(SLA) and Selective Laser Sintering (SLS).

SLA vs. SLS: Comparing Plastic 3D Printing Technologies

This article delves into the fundamentals of EMI gaskets, types, and their critical role in protecting electronic devices and ensuring optimal performance in various engineering applications.

EMI Gaskets: The Unsung Heroes of Electromagnetic Interference Shielding

Haver &amp; Boecker's innovative wire mesh filters set new standards in medical technology, where smooth processes mean the difference between life and death. The same is true for the chemical industry. Here, filtration components must function perfectly even under extreme conditions and in contact with corrosive media. At ACHEMA 2024 from 10 to 14 June, the manufacturer will demonstrate why metal mesh is an economical and future-oriented solution for a wide range of applications in the process industry. In the run-up to the exhibition, free whitepapers are available to shed more light on these topics.The white paper "When tiny meshes master mighty tasks" focuses on medical applications. Three practical examples illustrate the uses and benefits of wire mesh in this sector.<h3>Focus on the patient's quality of life</h3>The demands placed on medical technology products are high, as human lives depend on their performance and quality. This is even more true for filter components, which are used to remove unwanted particles from liquids and gases. Or to separate specific materials. &nbsp;&nbsp;Wire mesh filters from Haver &amp; Boecker are used in the manufacture of artificial kidneys (dialysis machines) or in stents to prevent blood clots from entering blood vessels. &nbsp;<img width="349" src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1713767565611-1713767565611.jpeg" class="fr-fic fr-dii">A deep understanding of the industry and continuous development make Haver &amp; Boecker a reliable partner in the development of new medical devices.Blood filtration in dialysis machines uses materials with mesh sizes between 10 and 100 nanometers to remove toxins while preserving essential blood cells and proteins. The flow characteristics are designed to cleanse the blood efficiently without affecting the patient's blood pressure. &nbsp;Air filtration in ventilators uses HEPA or ULPA filters that trap micron-sized particles (around 0.3 µm for HEPA) to remove bacteria, viruses and other contaminants. Despite their high filtration efficiency, these filters still provide sufficient airflow for the patient to breathe. The ability to precisely determine the pore size and flow characteristics of Haver &amp; Boecker's wire mesh filters enables them to be precisely tailored to medical requirements.<img width="354" src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1713767565618-1713767565618.jpeg" class="fr-fic fr-dii">In the future, metal mesh could be used for targeted drug delivery to hard-to-reach areas of the body.For grease-free cleaning, heating to 1000 °C is no problem. Advanced manufacturing processes and regular quality controls ensure maximum efficiency and reliability of the wire mesh. &nbsp;<h3>Corrosion-resistant and sustainable</h3>The second white paper, "Efficient filtration in the chemical and pharmaceutical&nbsp;industry", also covers applications where chemical corrosion resistance and precise pore size are required for specific separation processes. The wire meshes used in these applications require high mechanical strength for long-term use under variable pressure conditions and thermal stability at different temperatures. Cleanability is also essential for reusability and durability. &nbsp;&nbsp;The white paper highlights the importance of efficient filtration processes in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries to maintain high product quality. Various filter media are considered, with metal mesh laminates standing out for their robustness, durability and versatility. Their resistance to high temperatures and corrosion makes them ideal for process gas filtration and other demanding applications. &nbsp;<img width="354" src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1713767565624-1713767565624.jpeg" class="fr-fic fr-dii">Filter elements, such as this filter plate for chemical applications, are developed by Haver &amp; Boecker and produced specifically for the application (also in large quantities).The ability to be cleaned and reused, combined with a long service life, makes a significant contribution to waste reduction and environmental protection. Compared to conventional materials such as ceramics or textiles, wire mesh filters offer significant advantages in terms of process stability and cost efficiency due to lower differential pressure and the ability to filter high throughput volumes without increasing system size. The result is superior filtration efficiency that minimizes production downtime and lowers the total cost of ownership while reducing environmental impact.&nbsp;At ACHEMA 2024 you can see the product quality for yourself in Hall 3.0, Stand F38. Take the opportunity to learn first-hand about the many applications and benefits of this technology. Our representatives will be happy to assist you in person. &nbsp;<a href="https://www.haverboecker.com/en/industries/medicine-and-pharmaceuticals/?lso=wevolver-brand-beitrag&utm_campaign=brand&utm_source=wevolver&utm_medium=beitrag&utm_content=_042024" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">More info &amp; download</a>

Innovative wire mesh filters set new standards in medical technology, where smooth processes mean the difference between life and death. The same is true for the chemical industry. Here, filtration components must function perfectly even under extreme conditions and in contact with corrosive media. 

Wire mesh filters: precision and reliability for the process industry

To save on fuel and reduce aircraft emissions, engineers are looking to build lighter, stronger airplanes out of advanced composites. These engineered materials are made from high-performance fibers that are embedded in polymer sheets. The sheets can be stacked and pressed into one multilayered material and made into extremely lightweight and durable structures.But composite materials have one main vulnerability: the space between layers, which is typically filled with polymer “glue” to bond the layers together. In the event of an impact or strike, cracks can easily spread between layers and weaken the material, even though there may be no visible damage to the layers themselves. Over time, as these hidden cracks spread between layers, the composite could suddenly crumble without warning.Now, MIT engineers have shown they can prevent cracks from spreading between composite’s layers, using an approach they developed called “nanostitching,” in which they deposit chemically grown microscopic forests of carbon nanotubes between composite layers. The tiny, densely packed fibers grip and hold the layers together, like ultrastrong Velcro, preventing the layers from peeling or shearing apart.In experiments with an advanced composite known as thin-ply carbon fiber laminate, the team demonstrated that layers bonded with nanostitching improved the material’s resistance to cracks by up to 60 percent, compared with composites with conventional polymers. The researchers say the results help to address the main vulnerability in advanced composites.“Just like phyllo dough flakes apart, composite layers can peel apart because this interlaminar region is the Achilles’ heel of composites,” says Brian Wardle, professor of aeronautics and astronautics at MIT. “We’re showing that nanostitching makes this normally weak region so strong and tough that a crack will not grow there. So, we could expect the next generation of aircraft to have composites held together with this nano-Velcro, to make aircraft safer and have greater longevity.”Wardle and his colleagues have <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsami.3c17333" target="_blank">published their results</a> today in the journal ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces. The study’s first author is former MIT visiting graduate student and postdoc Carolina Furtado, along with Reed Kopp, Xinchen Ni, Carlos Sarrado, Estelle Kalfon-Cohen, and Pedro Camanho.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1713566912216-MIT-Nanostitch-02-press.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Nanostitching involves “growing” a forest of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes (CNT) on a wafer of silicon, through a process of chemical vapor deposition. The CNT-deposited wafer (to the left in grid “a”) is then inverted and pressed onto a larger composite ply (b), and lifted away, leaving the CNTs on the composite’s surface (c). A second ply is placed over the first, with the CNTs between, “stitching” the plies together. Image: Courtesy of the researchers<h2>Forest growth</h2>At MIT, Wardle is director of the necstlab (pronounced “next lab”), where he and his group <a href="https://news.mit.edu/2016/carbon-nanotube-stitches-strengthen-composites-0803" target="_blank">first developed</a> the concept for nanostitching. The approach involves “growing” a forest of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes — hollow fibers of carbon, each so small that tens of billions of the the nanotubes can stand in an area smaller than a fingernail. To grow the nanotubes, the team used a process of chemical vapor deposition to react various catalysts in an oven, causing carbon to settle onto a surface as tiny, hair-like supports. The supports are eventually removed, leaving behind a densely packed forest of microscopic, vertical rolls of carbon.The lab has previously shown that the nanotube forests can be grown and adhered to layers of composite material, and that this fiber-reinforced compound improves the material’s overall strength. The researchers had also seen some signs that the fibers can improve a composite’s resistance to cracks between layers.In their new study, the engineers took a more in-depth look at the between-layer region in composites to test and quantify how nanostitching would improve the region’s resistance to cracks. In particular, the study focused on an advanced composite material known as thin-ply carbon fiber laminates.“This is an emerging composite technology, where each layer, or ply, is about 50 microns thin, compared to standard composite plies that are 150 microns, which is about the diameter of a human hair. There’s evidence to suggest they are better than standard-thickness composites. And we wanted to see whether there might be synergy between our nanostitching and this thin-ply technology, since it could lead to more resilient aircraft, high-value aerospace structures, and space and military vehicles,” Wardle says.<h2>Velcro grip</h2>The study’s experiments were led by Carolina Furtado, who joined the effort as part of the MIT-Portugal program in 2016, continued the project as a postdoc, and is now a professor at the University of Porto in Portugal, where her research focuses on modeling cracks and damage in advanced composites.In her tests, Furtado used the group’s techniques of chemical vapor deposition to grow densely packed forests of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes. She also fabricated samples of thin-ply carbon fiber laminates. The resulting advanced composite was about 3 millimeters thick and comprised 60 layers, each made from stiff, horizontal fibers embedded in a polymer sheet.She transferred and adhered the nanotube forest in between the two middle layers of the composite, then cooked the material in an autoclave to cure. To test crack resistance, the researchers placed a crack on the edge of the composite, right at the start of the region between the two middle layers.“In fracture testing, we always start with a crack because we want to test whether and how far the crack will spread,” Furtado explains.The researchers then placed samples of the nanotube-reinforced composite in an experimental setup to test their resilience to “delamination,” or the potential for layers to separate.“There’s lots of ways you can get precursors to delamination, such as from impacts, like tool drop, bird strike, runway kickup in aircraft, and there could be almost no visible damage, but internally it has a delamination,” Wardle says. “Just like a human, if you’ve got a hairline fracture in a bone, it’s not good. Just because you can’t see it doesn’t mean it’s not impacting you. And damage in composites is hard to inspect.”To examine nanostitching’s potential to prevent delamination, the team placed their samples in a setup to test three delamination modes, in which a crack could spread through the between-layer region and peel the layers apart or cause them to slide against each other, or do a combination of both. All three of these modes are the most common ways in which conventional composites can internally flake and crumble.The tests, in which the researchers precisely measured the force required to peel or shear the composite’s layers, revealed that the nanostitched held fast, and the initial crack that the researchers made was unable to spread further between the layers. The nanostitched samples were up to 62 percent tougher and more resistant to cracks, compared with the same advanced composite material that was held together with conventional polymers.“This is a new composite technology, turbocharged by our nanotubes,” Wardle says.“The authors have demonsrated that thin plies and nanostitching together have made significant increase in toughness,” says Stephen Tsai, emeritus professor of aeronautics and astronautics at Stanford University. “Composites are degraded by their weak interlaminar strength. Any improvement shown in this work will increase the design allowable, and reduce the weight and cost of composites technology.”The researchers envision that any vehicle or structure that incorporates conventional composites could be made lighter, tougher, and more resilient with nanostitching.“You could have selective reinforcement of problematic areas, to reinforce holes or bolted joints, or places where delamination might happen,” Furtado says. “This opens a big window of opportunity.”

This schematic shows an engineered material with composite layers. Layers of carbon fibers (the long silver tubes) have microscopic forests of carbon nanotubes between them (the array of tiny brown objects). These tiny, densely packed fibers grip and hold the layers together, like ultrastrong Velcro, preventing the layers from peeling or shearing apart. Image: Courtesy of the researchers, edited by MIT News

In research that may lead to next-generation airplanes and spacecraft, MIT engineers used carbon nanotubes to prevent cracking in multilayered composites.

"Nanostitches" enable lighter and tougher composite materials

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