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<h3>Key Takeaways</h3><ul><li>The surface texture symbol has three forms: plain means any process is permitted, a bar across the “V” means material shall be removed, a circle means material removal is not permitted.[1]</li><li>ISO 1302:2002 has been withdrawn, and ISO 21920-1:2021 is its replacement.[1][2]</li><li>The current symbol carries a bar above it. ISO 21920-1 added that bar specifically to distinguish its symbols from the ISO 1302 ones, so the bar tells you which rulebook applies.[1]</li><li>Newer and older drawings place important information in differing locations around the symbol.</li></ul><h2>Introduction</h2>A surface finish symbol or surface roughness symbol tells the machinist which process is allowed, how rough the surface may be, which way the tool marks should run, and how much stock to leave for a later operation.This guide covers the symbol seen on engineering drawings: the current ISO form, the ISO 1302 form that a large share of drawings in service were drawn to, older styles you will find on legacy drawings, and the North American ASME form. It focuses on reading and writing the callout. For the Ra numbers themselves, see the companion <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/surface-finish-chart-ra-rq-and-n-grade-conversions" target="_blank">surface roughness chart</a>, and for how the surface roughness values are captured, see the <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/measuring-surface-roughness-a-comprehensive-guide" target="_blank">measuring surface roughness guide</a>.<h2>The Surface Texture Symbol and Its Three Forms</h2><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1791407006426-Main+image.png" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="Surface finish symbols old and new" />The surface finish symbol comes in three main variantsThe basic graphical symbol is two straight lines of unequal length, inclined at approximately 60° to the line representing the surface being specified.[1] It looks like an elongated check mark or square-root sign.Adding a bar across the “V” of the symbol means material removal is required; adding a circle means material removal is not permitted.[1] Those two marks change what the shop is allowed to do.<div><table><tbody><tr><td>Form</td><td>Meaning</td><td>Text abbreviation</td><td>What the shop may do</td></tr><tr><td>Plain symbol</td><td>Any manufacturing process permitted</td><td>APA (any process allowed)</td><td>Machining or non-machining, the shop chooses</td></tr><tr><td>Symbol with a bar across the V</td><td>Material shall be removed</td><td>MRR (material removal required)</td><td>Must machine, grind, hone or otherwise cut the surface</td></tr><tr><td>Symbol with a circle in the V</td><td>Material removal is not permitted</td><td>NMR (no material removed)</td><td>Must leave the as-formed surface: cast, forged, rolled, injection molded</td></tr></tbody></table></div>The three-letter abbreviations exist for written text such as reports and contracts, where you cannot draw the symbol.[1]To carry any complementary requirement, a horizontal line is added to the longer arm of the symbol.[1] A circle over the kink of the complete symbol (where the top right of the “V” meets the horizontal line) means the requirement applies to all surfaces around the workpiece outline shown on that view.[2] But this is no longer used in the latest ISO standard.[1]A surface texture requirement is indicated only once for a given surface, and where possible on the same view that carries the size or location dimensions and their tolerances. The symbol must touch the surface or connect to it by a reference line and leader terminating in an arrowhead, pointing at the surface from outside the material.[1]<h2>What Each Value Around the Symbol Means</h2>This is the part engineers get wrong most often, because the values included on the surface finish callout (and their position) depend on the surface finish standard being used.<h3>ISO 21920-1</h3><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1791407061637-New+ISO+example.png" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="An example ISO 2190-1 surface texture callout" />A callout for Ra 2 roughness with perpendicular lay to be achieved by grinding; material removal is requiredThe current ISO standard for surface finish specifications requires, at a minimum, the graphical symbol described above in one of its three forms, a symbol to indicate the parameter being used (Ra, Rz, etc.), and a numerical value.[1] Everything else is optional and defaults if omitted.Information on the callout can include:[1]<ul><li>Manufacturing process (above the horizontal line, to the left)</li><li>Lay (above the horizontal line, to the right)</li><li>The R-parameter and its specified value (below the horizontal line)</li><li>Various optional modifiers relating to the R-parameter (below the horizontal line)</li><li>Profile direction relative to surface lay (to the right of the “V” of the symbol)</li></ul>For an evaluation-length R-parameter such as Ra, the (optional) elements must be placed in a specific syntactical order, namely: tolerance type, parameter symbol, tolerance limit value, tolerance acceptance rule, S-filter type and nesting index, L-filter type and nesting index, evaluation length, F-operator association method and nesting index, method of profile extraction, an other-requirements placeholder, manufacturing process, surface lay and direction of lay, and profile direction relative to the lay.[1]A minimal indication is just the symbol, the parameter and the limit, and ISO notes that the complete indication “might be rarely used in practice.”[1] Parameters with defined defaults include Rz, Ra, Rp, Rv, Rq, Rmax, Rt, and Pt.[1]Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/surface-finish-standards" target="_blank">Surface Finish: Parameters, Standards, and How to Specify It</a><h3>ISO 1302</h3><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1791407228917-Old+ISO+examples.png" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="Old ISO surface texture symbols" />Three no-longer-current callouts: multidirectional lay, all-surface application, and machining allowance of 3 mm Under ISO 1302:2002, the final version of the old standard, some values are found in different places. And since ISO 1302 was only replaced in 2021, drawings with ISO 1302 are still very common.As with the current ISO standard, the R-parameter and its value is found under the horizontal line and the manufacturing process (if specified) is found above the line.[2]But differences include:[2]<ul><li>Lay (to the right of the “V”)</li><li>Machining allowance (to the left of the “V”)</li><li>Circle symbol indicating that the requirement applies to all surfaces around the workpiece outline shown on that view (where the “V” meets the horizontal line)</li></ul><h2>Historical ISO standards</h2><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1791407616438-Historical+ISO+examples.png" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="Historical surface finish symbols " />Older drawings may put the Ra value or an obsolete N-grade directly above the V of the symbolSurface finishing as a serious engineering practice has existed for almost a century, and common surface symbols entered usage in the 1960s.[3]Drawings outlive standards. On older drawings, the roughness is often given as a roughness grade number rather than an explicit Ra value, a convention that goes back to the 1971 ISO recommendation and its table of grade numbers.[4] Those grade numbers are mapped to Ra values in our <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/surface-finish-chart-ra-rq-and-n-grade-conversions" target="_blank">surface roughness chart</a>.The 1971 recommendation that preceded ISO 1302 already used the same basic check mark, the same bar for material removal required and the same circle for material removal not permitted.[4]However, between 1971 and 1992, values were found in different locations around the symbol,[2] notably:<ul><li>The R-parameter and its specified value (directly above the “V”, defined as “position x” in old standards)</li></ul>Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/surface-finish-chart-ra-rq-and-n-grade-conversions" target="_blank">Surface Finish Chart: Ra, Rq, and N-Grade Conversions</a><h3>ASME Y14.36</h3>North American engineering drawings follow the American Society of Mechanical Engineers rather than ISO. The relevant standard is ASME Y14.36M, currently in its 2018 edition, reaffirmed in 2024.[5]Differences between the ISO and ASME standards are fairly minor. Callouts following ASME Y14.36 closely resemble those following the withdrawn ISO 1302.Notable placements include:[5]<ul><li>Lay (to the right of the “V”)</li><li>All-around modifier: Circle symbol indicating that the requirement applies to all surfaces around the workpiece outline shown on that view (where the “V” meets the horizontal line)</li><li>All-over modifier: Variant of the above, two concentric circles indicating that the requirement applies to all surfaces of the part (where the “V” meets the horizontal line)</li></ul>American drawings also commonly work in microinches where ISO drawings work in micrometers; ASME allows either.[5]<h2>Lay Direction Symbols in Full</h2>Lay is the predominant direction of the surface pattern, ordinarily determined by the production method used.[6] It is the direction of the tool marks, and it is specified separately from any roughness value because two surfaces with an identical Ra value can behave completely differently depending on which way the grooves run.That matters most on seals, bearings, and sliding contacts, where the grooves either guide fluid along the joint or across it. On a honed cylinder bore, the crosshatch pattern is specified as lay because the direction of the marks does work that no single roughness value can describe.ISO and ASME standards use equivalent lay symbols. However, the current ISO standard defines the first three according to an intersection plane indicator and datum feature indicator in the top right of the callout, whereas older ISO standards and ASME define them by the plane of projection.[1][5]The mapping below is taken directly from the current ISO standard.[1]<div><table><tbody><tr><td>Symbol</td><td>Meaning</td><td>Typical process</td></tr><tr><td>=</td><td>Parallel to direction</td><td>Shaping, planing, some milling</td></tr><tr><td>⊥</td><td>Perpendicular to direction</td><td>Shaping, planing across the view</td></tr><tr><td>X</td><td>Crossed in two oblique directions relative to the direction</td><td>Honing, crosshatched bores</td></tr><tr><td>M</td><td>Multidirectional</td><td>Lapping, blasting, polishing, superfinishing</td></tr><tr><td>C</td><td>Approximately circular relative to the centre of the surface to which the symbol applies</td><td>Facing and turning on a lathe</td></tr><tr><td>R</td><td>Approximately radial relative to the centre of the surface to which the symbol applies</td><td>Some grinding and facing operations</td></tr><tr><td>P</td><td>Lay is particulate, non-directional, or protuberant</td><td>Powder coating, electro-deposited and sprayed finishes</td></tr></tbody></table></div><h2>ISO Standard Changes</h2>ISO 1302:2002 has been withdrawn and replaced by ISO 21920-1, whose first edition is dated 2021-12.[1] The new standard sits in a three-part series: Part 1 covers indication on drawings, Part 2 covers terms, definitions, and parameters, and Part 3 covers specification operators.[1] Note that ISO 21920-1 is already at stage 90.92, “International Standard to be revised.”[1]Some changes from the old to the new ISO standard have already been discussed, such as the removal of the machining allowance value and the all-surfaces application symbol. Below are three other notable changes in the new standard:<h3>1. Bar above symbol</h3>ISO 21920-1’s graphical symbols carry a horizontal bar above the main symbol: “The bar above the symbol is to distinguish this symbol from the ones used in ISO 1302 and those used for indication of areal surface texture specifications.”[1]The bar is a version stamp. So if the symbol has it, you can read the callout under ISO 21920-1 rules; if it does not, it should be read under ISO 1302 rules or whatever other standard has been specified.The three forms themselves are unchanged in meaning: any manufacturing process permitted, material shall be removed, material removal is not permitted.[1]<h3>2. New default acceptance rule </h3>Under ISO 1302, a limit with no rule stated meant the 16% rule, the ISO 4288 default, which allows at most 16% of measured values to violate the limit.[1][2]Under ISO 21920-1, the default is the maximum tolerance acceptance rule, which “does not allow any measured value to exceed the tolerance limit” and which is “the default case and valid with or without indication of the Tmax symbol.”[1]The same drawing value, unchanged, is harder to pass under the new default. A third option now exists too: the median rule, where the median of all measured values must meet the limit, using at least three measurements.[1]<h3>3. Element set syntax expansion</h3>ISO 21920-1 replaced the “a-to-e” scheme (where five letters were used to specify where values should appear on a callout) with a longer, ordered specification string. For an evaluation-length R-parameter such as Ra, the elements run: tolerance type, parameter symbol, tolerance limit value, tolerance acceptance rule, S-filter type and nesting index, L-filter type and nesting index, evaluation length, F-operator association method and nesting index, method of profile extraction, an other-requirements placeholder, manufacturing process, surface lay and direction of lay, and profile direction relative to the lay.[1]<h2>Conclusion</h2>Surface finish symbols are a compact, positional language, and almost all the difficulty is in the positions rather than the values. Learn the three symbol forms, learn what sits at each position, and learn the seven lay symbols, and you can read any surface texture symbol you meet.Remember that ISO 1302 is withdrawn, ISO 21920-1:2021 replaced it, and the replacement changed both the appearance of the symbol, by adding a bar above it, and the meaning of a bare limit, by making the maximum rule the default.[1][2] However, drawings drawn to ISO 1302 will stay in service for years yet, so you need to read both schemes, and the bar is how you tell them apart.When you write a callout, specify the parameter, the limit, the cutoff, and the lay where it matters, and leave everything else to defaults. When you read one, check the bar first.<h2>Frequently Asked Questions</h2>What are surface finish symbols?They are standardized graphical symbols used on technical drawings to specify the required texture of a surface profile.What does a bar or a circle on the symbol mean?A bar added to the basic symbol means material shall be removed, so the surface must be machined. A circle means material removal is not permitted, so the surface must be left as cast, forged, rolled or molded. A plain symbol means any manufacturing process is permitted.What does 32 surface finish mean?On a North American drawing a bare 32 surface geometry is conventionally read as Ra 32 µin, because American drawings commonly work in microinches.How do you specify surface finish on a drawing?Draw the appropriate symbol form, add the horizontal extension line, then place the parameter designation and its limit value below the extension line.Is ISO 1302 still current?No. ISO lists ISO 1302:2002 as withdrawn at stage 95.99 and names ISO 21920-1:2021 as its replacement.[1] You still need to be able to read ISO 1302 callouts, because many drawings in service predate the change and will not be redrawn.What is the difference between ISO and ASME surface finish symbols?The symbol shape is shared, but value positions and units differ, as described above.What do the lay symbols mean?There are seven: = for parallel, ⊥ for perpendicular, X for crossed, M for multi-directional, C for approximately circular, R for approximately radial, and P for particulate, non-directional or protuberant lay.<h2>References</h2>[1] International Organization for Standardization. <a href="https://www.iso.org/standard/72196.html" target="_blank">ISO 21920-1:2021. Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Surface texture: Profile — Part 1: Indication of surface texture</a>. Geneva: ISO; 2021.[2] International Organization for Standardization. <a href="https://www.iso.org/standard/28089.html" target="_blank">ISO 1302:2002. Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) — Indication of surface texture in technical product documentation</a>. Geneva: ISO; 2002. Withdrawn 2021.[3] Nugent P. <a href="https://www.qualitymag.com/articles/87804-50-years-of-quality-a-superficial-history-of-surface-finish" target="_blank">50 Years of Quality: A Superficial History of Surface Finish</a> [Internet]. Quality Magazine. 2011 Apr 1 [cited 2026 Oct 7].[4] International Organization for Standardization. ISO/R 1302:1971. Technical drawings — Method of indicating surface texture on drawings. Geneva: ISO; 1971. Withdrawn 1976.[5] American Society of Mechanical Engineers. <a href="https://www.asme.org/codes-standards/find-codes-standards/y14-36-surface-texture-symbols" target="_blank">ASME Y14.36-2018 (R2024). Surface Texture Symbols</a>. New York: ASME; 2018.[6] American Society of Mechanical Engineers. <a href="https://www.asme.org/codes-standards/find-codes-standards/b46-1-surface-texture/2019/pdf" target="_blank">ASME B46.1-2019. Surface Texture (Surface Roughness, Waviness, and Lay)</a>. New York: ASME; 2019.

Precise surface finishing requires precise notation

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<h2>Key Takeaways</h2><ul><li>The surface finish chart below converts between Ra in micrometers, Ra in microinches, and ISO N-grades.</li><li>For most machined surfaces, Rq (RMS) is about 11% higher than the Ra value, but you cannot obtain an accurate Rq from Ra alone.</li><li>N-grades come from ISO 1302, which ISO records as withdrawn and replaced by ISO 21920-1:2021. But they still appear on drawings, so you still need to read them.</li></ul><h2>The Surface Finish Chart</h2>This is the core conversion table, with the first three columns taken directly from ISO 1302.[1] Ra is the reference column, because every other unit here is derived from it or maps onto it.<div><table><tbody><tr><td>N-grade</td><td>Ra (µm)</td><td>Ra (µin)</td><td>Typical Rq/RMS (µin)</td><td>Notes</td></tr><tr><td>N1</td><td>0.025</td><td>1</td><td>1.1</td><td> </td></tr><tr><td>N2</td><td>0.05</td><td>2</td><td>2.2</td><td> </td></tr><tr><td>N3</td><td>0.1</td><td>4</td><td>4.4</td><td> </td></tr><tr><td>N4</td><td>0.2</td><td>8</td><td>8.9</td><td> </td></tr><tr><td>N5</td><td>0.4</td><td>16</td><td>17.8</td><td>Finest as-machined finish[2]</td></tr><tr><td>N6</td><td>0.8</td><td>32</td><td>35.5</td><td> </td></tr><tr><td>N7</td><td>1.6</td><td>63</td><td>69.9</td><td> </td></tr><tr><td>N8</td><td>3.2</td><td>125</td><td>138.8</td><td>Standard as-machined finish[2]</td></tr><tr><td>N9</td><td>6.3</td><td>250</td><td>277.5</td><td> </td></tr><tr><td>N10</td><td>12.5</td><td>500</td><td>555</td><td> </td></tr><tr><td>N11</td><td>25.0</td><td>1000</td><td>1110</td><td> </td></tr><tr><td>N12</td><td>50.0</td><td>2000</td><td>2220</td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></div>The Rq column is computed as Ra × 1.11 for reasons explained below.Note that the microinch and micrometer columns are the conventional rounded pairs, not exact conversions.<h2>How to Read This Surface Finish Chart</h2>Ra, Rq, Rz, and Rt are all roughness parameters computed from the same measured roughness profile, so one measurement can report several of them at once.<h3>Ra</h3>Ra is the arithmetic mean of the absolute height deviations of the roughness profile from the mean line, measured over the evaluation length.[3] ASME B46.1-2019 gives the discrete form used by digital instruments as:[3]Ra = (|Z1| + |Z2| + |Z3| ... |ZN|) / NWhere each Z value is a measurement of an absolute deviation (either a peak or a valley) from the mean line. N represents the total number of measurements taken.The abbreviations on older drawings all mean the same measurement:<div><table><tbody><tr><td>Abbreviation</td><td>Stands for</td><td>Notes</td></tr><tr><td>Ra</td><td>Roughness average</td><td>Current ISO and ASME designation</td></tr><tr><td>CLA</td><td>Center line average</td><td>Older British usage. Numerically identical to Ra in µin</td></tr><tr><td>AA</td><td>Arithmetic average</td><td>Older American usage. Same measurement</td></tr><tr><td>Rq</td><td>Quadratic mean</td><td>A different calculation, not a different name. See below</td></tr><tr><td>RMS</td><td>Root mean square</td><td>The same as Rq</td></tr></tbody></table></div><h3>Rq</h3>Rq, sometimes written as RMS, is the square root of the mean of the squared height deviations. Squaring before averaging weights large peaks and valleys more heavily than Ra does, so Rq always reads slightly higher than Ra on the same surface profile.[4]For most machined surfaces, Rq is approximately 11% higher than Ra, giving the rule of thumb Rq ≈ Ra × 1.11.[5] That factor is exact only for an idealized sinusoidal profile—a surface that rises and falls with perfectly consistent repetition. Real surfaces depart from it, and the rougher and less regular the surface, the less reliable it becomes. In other words, you cannot get an exact Rq value from your Ra value; you need data from the measured profile to calculate it.<h3>N-grades</h3>N-grades, defined by ISO 1302, compress a roughness specification into a single number from N1 to N12, and each step roughly doubles Ra.[1]However, ISO 1302:2002 has been withdrawn and replaced by ISO 21920-1:2021.[1][6]So N-grades are a notation from a superseded standard. They have not vanished from drawings, which is why the chart includes them, but a new drawing is better served by an explicit Ra value with its cutoff stated. If you are updating drawing templates, note that ISO 21920-1 also changed the default acceptance rule to the maximum rule.[6]<h3>Rz</h3>Ra and Rz describe different things. Ra averages every deviation from the mean line, while Rz averages the most extreme deviations from each sampling length, so it is more sensitive to pronounced peaks and valleys.[4] Two surfaces with the same Ra value can have very different Rz values depending on whether the roughness profile is uniform or punctuated by isolated scratches and burrs. One value cannot be converted from the other.Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/ra-vs-rz-understanding-surface-roughness-parameters-in-engineering" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">RA vs RZ: Understanding Surface Roughness Parameters in Engineering</a><h3>Cutoff λc</h3>A surface roughness value is incomplete without its filter cutoff, and this is the single most common reason two parties measuring the same part disagree.The cutoff separates roughness from waviness. ASME B46.1-2019 demonstrates the effect on one measured profile: at a 0.8 mm cutoff it reports Ra 0.057 µm, at 0.25 mm it reports 0.044 µm, and at 0.08 mm it reports 0.028 µm.[3]When the drawing does not state a cutoff, B46.1-2019 gives guideline values selected from the measured Ra.[3]<div><table><tbody><tr><td>Ra (µm)</td><td>Cutoff λc (mm)</td><td>Evaluation length L (mm)</td></tr><tr><td>up to 0.02</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.40</td></tr><tr><td>0.02 to 0.10</td><td>0.25</td><td>1.25</td></tr><tr><td>0.10 to 2.0</td><td>0.80</td><td>4.0</td></tr><tr><td>2.0 to 10.0</td><td>2.5</td><td>12.5</td></tr><tr><td>over 10.0</td><td>8.0</td><td>40.0</td></tr></tbody></table></div>Most machined work falls in the 0.10 to 2.0 µm band, which is why a 0.8 mm cutoff and a 4.0 mm evaluation length is the common default. The sampling length equals the cutoff when a filter is used.[3]<h3>Lay</h3>Lay, the predominant direction of the surface pattern, is specified separately from the roughness number.[3] It is called out with its own symbol set, including R for radial and C for circular. Surface finish symbols indicate lay, the parameter, the limit, and the cutoff together on the drawing.Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/surface-finish-standards" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Surface Finish: Parameters, Standards, and How to Specify It</a><h2>Ra Values by Manufacturing Process</h2><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzkwODIwNzIxODI3LXNodXR0ZXJzdG9ja18xOTcyNjAxNTM3LmpwZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" />Grinding can produce a fine surface finishDifferent processes can achieve different levels of surface smoothness. However, which exact finish a manufacturing process can reach depends on the material, the tooling, the machine, and the parameters.<div><table><tbody><tr><td>Process</td><td>Typical Ra (µm)</td><td>Quality band</td></tr><tr><td>Lapping</td><td>0.1 to 0.2[7]</td><td>Very fine</td></tr><tr><td>Honing</td><td>0.2 to 0.4[7]</td><td>Fine</td></tr><tr><td>Grinding</td><td>0.4[7]</td><td>Fine</td></tr><tr><td>CNC turning</td><td>3.2[2]</td><td>Medium to fine</td></tr><tr><td>CNC milling</td><td>3.2[2]</td><td>Medium</td></tr><tr><td>Rough machining</td><td>25[5]</td><td>Rough</td></tr><tr><td>Sand casting</td><td>50[5]</td><td>Rough</td></tr></tbody></table></div>Within any one process, the finish is driven by the details. In <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/tag/cnc-machining" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CNC machining</a>, feed rate, spindle rpm, tool nose radius, rigidity and tool wear all affect the achievable finish, which is why the same nominal operation on two machines will not give you the same surface texture.Secondary operations are equally important. Honing refines a bore beyond what boring alone reaches, deburring removes the burrs left at cut edges, and bead blasting produces a uniform matte non-directional texture. Powder coating and similar coatings add a layer that inherits and modifies the texture underneath.Bulk-forming processes sit at the coarse end, and the surface roughness values of processes like forging and rolling are usually a starting condition to be machined away rather than a finish to be met.<h2 id="isPasted">The Price of Lower Ra Values</h2>Surface finish generally becomes more expensive as the required Ra decreases. Rough machining can achieve relatively high Ra values with standard cutting tools and short cycle times, while finer finishes require slower feeds, sharper or more specialized tooling, and better machine stability.[5] Once conventional machining approaches its practical limit, processes such as grinding, honing, lapping, polishing, or superfinishing may be needed, adding both processing time and setup costs.[7]The relationship is not linear. Reducing Ra from 3.2 to 1.6 µm may require only a modest change in machining conditions, while reducing it from 0.8 to 0.4 µm can require a substantially different process. For this reason, specifying a finer surface finish than the function of the part requires can increase manufacturing cost without providing a corresponding benefit.<h2>Abrasive Grit to Ra</h2>Abrasive grit numbers map onto Ra only loosely, and the mapping depends on which grit scale is being quoted. The bands below are on the FEPA P-scale for coated abrasives, standardized as ISO 6344.[6]<div><table><tbody><tr><td>Grit (FEPA P)</td><td>Ra (µm), approx.</td><td>Ra (µin), approx.</td><td>Typical use</td></tr><tr><td>P40 to P60</td><td>3 to 5</td><td>120 to 200</td><td>Stock removal, weld knock-down</td></tr><tr><td>P80 to P120</td><td>1.5 to 3</td><td>60 to 120</td><td>Blending, coarse shaping</td></tr><tr><td>P150 to P240</td><td>0.8 to 1.5</td><td>32 to 60</td><td>Pre-finish smoothing</td></tr><tr><td>P320 to P600</td><td>0.3 to 0.8</td><td>12 to 32</td><td>Finishing, sealer scuff</td></tr><tr><td>P800 to P1200</td><td>0.1 to 0.3</td><td>4 to 12</td><td>Polish preparation</td></tr><tr><td>P1500 and finer</td><td>under 0.1</td><td>under 4</td><td>Pre-buff, high-gloss start</td></tr></tbody></table></div><h2>How the Measurement Is Taken</h2><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzkwODIwNzY1NzA5LXNodXR0ZXJzdG9ja18xMzcyNjQ3NjI5LmpwZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="A contact surface roughness tester" />A contact roughness tester or profilometerSurface finish measurement varies depending on the equipment used.A contact surface roughness tester drags a stylus of known tip radius across the surface at fixed speed and records height data at a set interval.[3] These instruments, generally called profilometers, produce the surface profile that every parameter in the chart is computed from.A non-contact method uses optical interaction instead: focus variation, confocal microscopy or interferometry. Optical instruments capture an area rather than a single line, which matters when the texture of a surface is directional.<h2>Conclusion</h2>A surface finish chart is a unit converter, but it cannot tell you what Rz corresponds to your Ra, because that depends on the shape of the roughness profile. Use the chart to translate between units, then specify the parameter, the limit, the cutoff, and the standard explicitly on your technical drawings. Then the number will mean the same thing to you and to whoever makes the part.<h2>Frequently Asked Questions</h2>What does a 32 surface finish mean?Ra 32 µin, equivalently Ra 0.8 µm or N6, a general engineering finish.What is the difference between Ra and Rq?Ra averages the absolute deviations from the mean line; Rq squares them first, which weights large peaks and valleys more heavily. On the same profile Rq typically reads about 11% higher, so RMS ≈ Ra × 1.11 as a rule of thumb.[5] They are two calculations on one measurement, not two measurements.Is CLA the same as Ra?Yes. Center line average is an older name for the same arithmetic average measurement.How do I convert Ra to Rz?You cannot do it reliably, as the Ra value has already “smoothed out” the extremes of which Rz is a measure.Are N-grades still valid?They come from ISO 1302, which ISO lists as withdrawn and replaced by ISO 21920-1:2021.[1][6] They remain common on existing drawings, so you still need to read them, but new drawings are better served by an explicit Ra value with its cutoff.Why do two shops measure the same part differently?Usually the filter cutoff. ASME’s own example gets Ra 0.057 µm and Ra 0.028 µm from one profile by changing the cutoff.[3]What Ra can CNC machining reach?Roughly 3.2 µm as machined, down to about 0.4 µm with further finishing passes.[2]<h2>References</h2>[1] International Organization for Standardization. <a href="https://www.iso.org/standard/28089.html" target="_blank">ISO 1302:2002: Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) — Indication of surface texture in technical product documentation</a>. Geneva: ISO; 2002.[2] Protolabs Network. <a href="https://www.hubs.com/knowledge-base/surface-finishes-cnc-machinings/#surface-finishes-explained-as-machined" target="_blank">What are the types of surface finishes for CNC machining?</a> [Internet]. Protolabs Network; [cited 2026 Sep 30].[3] American Society of Mechanical Engineers. <a href="https://www.asme.org/getmedia/f22128e5-acad-429d-bc75-0ac4bdffdf44/b46-1-2019-11x17-poster.pdf" target="_blank">B46.1-2019: Surface texture (surface roughness, waviness, and lay): reference poster</a>. New York: ASME; 2019.[4] Keyence. <a href="https://www.keyence.com/products/microscope/laser-microscope/resources/laser-microscope-resources/how-surface-height-is-quantified-from-ra-to-rz.jsp" target="_blank">How surface height is quantified, from Ra to Rz</a> [Internet]. Keyence; [cited 2026 Sep 30].[5] Astro Pak. <a href="https://astropak.com/surface-roughness-average-ra/" target="_blank">Surface roughness average (Ra): chart, formula, and conversion calculator</a> [Internet]. Astro Pak; [cited 2026 Sep 30].[6] International Organization for Standardization. <a href="https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:21920:-1:ed-1:v1:en" target="_blank">ISO 21920-1:2021: Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) — Surface texture: Profile — Part 1: Indication of surface texture</a>. Geneva: ISO; 2021.[7] Grzesik W, Kruszynski B, Ruszaj A. <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-84882-874-2_5" target="_blank">Surface integrity of machined surfaces</a>. In: Grzesik W, editor. Surface integrity in machining. London: Springer London; 2010. p. 143-179.[8] Whitby Abrasives. <a href="https://whitbyabrasives.ca/blogs/news/grit-to-surface-finish-ra-chart" target="_blank">Grit-to-surface-finish (Ra) chart</a> [Internet]. Whitby Abrasives; [cited 2026 Sep 30].

Surface finish can be specified in many different ways

A reference chart for converting between surface finish units, plus Ra values by manufacturing process and the relationship between surface

Surface Finish Chart: Ra, Rq, and N-Grade Conversions

Surface finishes can be altered with methods like coating and conversion

Surface finish decides whether a bearing seizes, a weld bonds, or a shaft survives its fatigue life. This guide covers what it is, its parameters, and how to specify it.

Surface Finish: Parameters, Standards, and How to Specify It

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) vs Distributed Control System (DCS)

This guide compares PLC vs DCS architecture, scan times, redundancy, scalability, programming, costs, and applications to help you choose the right industrial control system.

PLC vs DCS: Key Differences and How to Choose

Different types of DIN rail terminal blocks used for electrical connections and control-panel wiring.

DIN rail terminal blocks are modular connectors that secure and organize wires on standardized DIN rails. This article explains rail profiles, ratings, connection methods, wire sizes, accessories, and assembly practices for reliable control panels.

DIN Rail Terminal Blocks: Rails, Selection, and Assembly

What is CNC turning? This digital manufacturing technology, different from CNC milling in a few important ways, is used to make rounded or cylindrical parts with a high level of precision.

CNC Turning: Process, Operations, Machines, and Applications

This article is a practical PLC programming guide covering the five IEC 61131-3 languages, the scan cycle that governs how your code actually runs, ladder and structured text examples, and the mistakes that cost engineers the most commissioning time.

PLC Programming: Languages, Scan Cycles, and Working Ladder Logic

GD&T uses tolerance zones tied to a datum reference frame

GD&T is the symbolic language engineers use to state exactly how much a part can vary and still work. This guide covers the basics.

GD&T Explained: Symbols, Datums, and Tolerances

We’ve all heard of nylon, and most of us touch it daily. First synthesised in 1935 by chemist Wallace Carothers of DuPont, this well-known polymer was first used to replace silk in women’s stockings. But World War II significantly broadened nylon’s scope, and the novel material soon saw applications in everything from parachutes to truck tires, and tents to fuel tanks. It has become one of the most popular and widely used synthetic fibres ever invented.<hr /><h2>What is Nylon?</h2><a href="https://www.protolabs.com/en-gb/materials/nylon/">Nylon</a> is a polyamide, or PA, a group of synthetic and natural polymers that depend on amide linkages (a carbonyl group bonded to a nitrogen atom) for superior strength and durability. Other examples include Kevlar, Nomex, Pebax, and similar high-performance materials. Like nylon, all boast a range of desirable qualities—Kevlar, for example, is known for its toughness, which led to its use in bulletproof vests, while Nomex is often found in firefighting apparel.Of course, we don’t make clothing items, but we do manufacture a huge variety of unique, high-quality parts from more than two dozen grades of nylon. This article examines some of the properties and applications for these different materials, and touches on the manufacturing technologies used to process them.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1792647119263-1792647119263.png" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /><img alt="" src="https://www.protolabs.com/media/jokhftyq/nylon.jpg?width=1370&amp;v=1dbc639a4b19aa0" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /><h3 id="isPasted">Nylon 6 (PA 6): Resilient, but Avoid Water Contact</h3>Stroll through our machine shops and you might see parts being CNC milled from PA 6, a type of nylon synthesised from the organic compound caprolactam. The polymer chains within nylon 6 are made of repeating rings of six carbon atoms each, hence its name. Like other nylons, PA 6 is known for its high tensile strength, toughness, and elasticity. It does, however, have a notable ability to absorb moisture that can negatively affect its dimensional stability and mechanical properties. Nylon 6 begins to melt at around 428°F (220°C). It is resistant to many chemicals, oils, and solvents, is self-lubricating, and exhibits good abrasion resistance.With a weight one-eighth that of bronze, suitable applications for nylon 6 include gears and bushings, automobile components like intake manifolds and engine covers, and thanks to its electrical properties, it is often used for insulators and connectors. We offer two grades of cast nylon 6—PA 6 Black and PA 6 Blue—the latter of which is heat stabilised for a 10% increase in operating temperatures.<h3>Nylon 6/6: Tougher and More Wear-Resistant</h3>What a difference a few carbon atoms make! Nylon 6/6 (aka Nylon 66 or PA 6/6) is synthesised from two monomers—adipic acid and hexamethylenediamine—each contributing rings of six carbon atoms, which gives it the 6/6 suffix. These repeating rings increase the material’s tensile strength, toughness, and durability compared to nylon 6, while lowering its potential for moisture absorption and increasing its melting point to around 500° F (260° C). This makes nylon 6/6 a tougher, stronger (by about 20%), more wear-resistant big brother to nylon 6, even though it is found in many of the same applications.In our machine shop, two grades are available—nylon 6/6 natural and nylon 6/6 glass-filled (more on fills later), while the plastic injection moulding service offers many flavours of PA 66, most with some type of filler material included. Again, more on these in a moment.<h3>Nylon 6/12 (PA 6/12): Moisture-Resistance for Moulding</h3>Also found in the plastic injection moulding department is Nylon 6/12, which boasts alternating molecules of the monomers hexamethylenediamine (with 6 carbon atoms) and dodecanedioic acid (12 carbon atoms). It's a bit less strong than PA 6 or PA 66 and has a melt temperature that sits between the two, but it is less susceptible to moisture absorption than either.Your toothbrush bristles might be made of PA 6/12, not to mention the fuel lines in your car, the sheathing around its electrical cables, the zippers on your camping tent, and any other applications where a more stable, moisture-resistant grade of nylon is needed. We offer a 33% glass-filled version of polyamide 6/12—Zytel 77G33L NC010—for injection moulding, which its maker DuPont labels a “performance polymer” with additives for lubricity and mouldability.<h2><iframe width="697" height="392" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/JBOeg0ylhoI" frameborder="0" class="fr-draggable"></iframe>Nylon 11 (PA 11): Printing a Sustainable Plastic</h2>Let’s turn to 3D printing. PA 11 is synthesised from 11-aminoundecanoic acid, a monomer derived from castor oil. This makes it one of the "greenest" nylons, although all of them present certain recycling challenges. As you might have guessed by now, each repeating link of Nylon 11’s polymer chains contains 11 carbon atoms. We use powder made from black PA 11 in its SLS (selective laser sintering) 3D printers.The material offers a nice balance of strength and flexibility as well as excellent impact resistance, especially at low temperatures. It also absorbs less moisture compared to nylon 6 or 6/6, giving it better dimensional stability in humid conditions, but has a lower melting point of 410° F (210° C). Combine these qualities with high UV resistance and you'll find PA11 a first choice for many outdoor applications—ski boots and other sporting goods, for instance, or parts that contain snap fits and living hinges.<h3>Nylon 12 (PA 12): Solid Performer with a Different Molecular Shape</h3>PA 12 is another go-to material, used in both SLS and Multi Jet Fusion 3D printing. It is a linear aliphatic polyamide, meaning its structure is composed of open chains of carbon atoms (12, in this case) as opposed to rings. It exhibits excellent chemical resistance, especially against various chemicals, salts, and oils, but has a lower melting point—approximately 356° F (180° C). And like PA 11, it absorbs less moisture than other polyamides, making it dimensionally stable across a range of environmental conditions.Black and white grades are available, as are glass- and mineral-filled versions, both of which enhance PA 12’s mechanical and thermal properties. Enclosures and fixtures are often printed from PA 12 (filled or unfilled), as are some catheters and other medical components (PA 12 is among the more biocompatible of nylons), automotive fuel systems, cosmetics packaging, electrical connectors, and much more.<hr /><h2>Filling in the Blanks</h2>As indicated earlier, we offer about two dozen grades of nylon for use in the injection moulding process alone. With a few exceptions, most of these are based on nylon 66 with varying types of fillers. Glass-filled nylons are the most common, which as their name suggests, are reinforced with glass fibres to enhance their mechanical strength, stiffness, and dimensional stability. The percentage ranges between 13% (Hylon Select N1013HL) to 33% (Vydyne R533H and Zytel 70G33 are two examples).Mineral-reinforced nylons are also available, such as Minlon 10B40, and nylons that contain impact modifiers (Zytel ST-80) or UV stabilisers (RTP 200 200 UV). As noted, these and several other “specialty” nylons provide greater performance in demanding applications, albeit at a premium price.Finally, please note that while glass and mineral fillers bring significant benefits to the injection moulding party, they are also more abrasive than their unfilled counterparts and tend to wear mould cavities and cores more quickly.As always, you can check with your Protolabs representative for advice on polymer selection, mould design, and other manufacturing concerns early in the project development process to avoid issues down the line.<h2 id="isPasted">Get a Quote  </h2>Ready to bring your design to life in the right nylon? <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://buildit.protolabs.com/?lang=en-GB&amp;getaquote=true" target="_blank">Upload your part</a> for instant pricing and lead times on PA6, PA66, PA11, PA12, and glass or mineral filled grades.

We've all heard of nylon, and most of us touch it daily. First synthesised in 1935 by chemist Wallace Carothers of DuPont, this well-known polymer was first used to replace silk in women's stockings.

Types of Nylon: How They Stack Up

Electronics manufacturers face growing pressure to develop increasingly complex products while reducing production costs and development time. Shorter product lifecycles demand faster prototyping and frequent design changes. The current <a href="https://iina.in/the-meteoric-rise-of-flexible-electronics-a-transformative-innovation-reshaping-the-tech-landscape/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">trend of wearables and flexible electronics</a> has created demand for circuits that can be printed on non-rigid substrates.Conventional PCB manufacturing involves multiple steps, including copper patterning, chemical etching, and drilling. Most of these processes end up increasing material waste, processing time and setup costs, especially during small production runs. They can also be difficult to adapt to flexible substrates and unconventional circuit designs.Digital printing methods, such as inkjet printing, offer another way to produce electronic circuits. By depositing conductive materials directly onto substrates, these techniques can reduce material waste and simplify design iterations. They also give engineers greater flexibility to test new circuit layouts and work with different materials.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1792005405458-1792005405458.jpeg" width="602" height="401" class="fr-fic fr-dii" />Flexible PCB (printed circuit board). Source: AdobeStock.<h2>Moving Towards Additive Manufacturing with Selective Inkjet Printing</h2>Rather than removing material from a coated substrate through processes such as etching, selective <a href="https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/13427" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">inkjet printing</a> uses an additive approach. It deposits materials only where they are needed. This reduces material waste and simplifies pattern formation. Since ink droplets are deposited without direct contact with the substrate, the process is well suited for delicate and flexible materials that may be difficult to handle using conventional methods.Engineers can also select inks based on their electrical and mechanical properties. For example, conductive inks can form circuit traces. On the other hand, protective inks can shield printed features from environmental exposure. By adjusting printing parameters, manufacturers can control pattern geometry and material deposition. This versatility makes selective inkjet printing a promising option for producing complex electronics with high efficiency and design flexibility.<h3>Applying Inkjet Printing to Conventional PCB Manufacturing</h3>The benefits of selective inkjet printing aren't limited to new types of substrates. This technology can also complement existing PCB manufacturing methods. Instead of replacing the entire fabrication process, selective inkjet printing can be introduced at specific stages to improve material deposition and pattern accuracy. For instance, inkjet printing can deposit etch-resistant ink onto selected areas of a copper layer to protect circuit traces. Inkjet printing can also apply <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9783527828074.ch47" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">solder mask</a> around circuit features. It can make multiple passes to achieve the required thickness and coverage. Additionally, multi-colour printing allows manufacturers to add component labels and identification marks to the board. By integrating selective inkjet printing into existing workflows, engineers can improve efficiency without modifying the process.<h3>Beyond Traditional PCBs</h3>Selective inkjet printing allows engineers to create circuit patterns and features that are difficult to achieve with conventional rigid PCB processes. For instance, conductive inks can form electrical pathways directly on a substrate, which is useful in <a href="https://inks.nanografi.com/what-is-conductive-ink-applications-types-and-how-it-works/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">applications</a> such as sensors and antennas.Beyond that, selective inkjet printing can also be used to integrate electronics directly into components. It can deposit conductive or functional materials onto injection-molded parts and make the electronic features part of the product structure. Similarly, specialised inks can be deposited into recessed areas and cavities where conventional methods may struggle. These capabilities could help engineers develop compact and better-integrated electronic products.<h3>Enabling Wearables, Displays, and Flexible Products</h3>Inkjet printing can be ideal for consumer products or even industrial equipment where electronics need to follow the physical form of the product. This includes wearables, flexible displays, and industrial equipment with curved surfaces. This approach allows electronics to be designed around the product's geometry and functional requirements, rather than being limited by the rigid circuit board. For example, foldable devices such as the Samsung Galaxy Z Fold series and Apple’s iPhone Duo need to withstand repeated bending within a compact form factor. Of course, achieving reliable performance requires careful selection of inks and substrates to withstand repeated bending and environmental factors.<h2>Engineering Advantages of Inkjet Manufacturing</h2>From an engineering perspective, selective inkjet printing offers precise control over material deposition, pattern geometry, and other manufacturing parameters. As mentioned earlier, since the process deposits functional materials directly onto selected areas, it reduces material consumption compared to subtractive processes. It also reduces the need for etching chemicals and associated waste treatment.Another advantage is the ability to control printed features through digital design files. Engineers can modify trace layouts, feature dimensions, or deposition patterns without significant tooling changes. Print resolution and layer thickness can also be managed by adjusting parameters to achieve the desired trace geometry and material coverage.<h3>Why Inkjet Printing Could Open New Manufacturing Markets</h3>This technology could help manufacturers explore applications that require unconventional form factors and specialised circuit designs. Similarly, in-mould electronics could enable manufacturers to integrate electronics directly into components.Selective inkjet printing can also <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/aaembp/article-abstract/5/1/1/352310/Printed-Wireless-Sensing-Devices-using-Radio" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">improve radio-frequency components</a> and interactive surfaces. Printed antennas could support wireless communication, while conductive patterns on product surfaces could enable touch-sensitive controls. As ink formulations and printhead technology continue to advance, selective inkjet printing could become a go-to option for bringing new designs from prototype to production.<h2>Conclusion</h2>Inkjet printing can complement conventional PCB manufacturing while opening up new possibilities in flexible, wearable, and functional electronics. Its digital control, selective material deposition, and ability to work with different functional inks make it useful for customised designs, rapid prototyping, and small-batch production.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1792083657110-DSC_0034.jpeg" width="602" height="116" class="fr-fic fr-dii" />Industrial Print Integration (IPI) returns for its fifth edition on 24-25 November 2026 in Neuss, Germany. Source: IPI Conference.If you're looking to improve flexibility and efficiency in your electronics manufacturing process, visit the <a href="https://ipi-conference.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Industrial Print Integration (IPI) conference</a>, taking place on 24-25 November 2026 in Neuss, Germany. The event will focus on exploring the technologies shaping printed electronics.

Exploring the shift to additive digital printing in modern electronics fabrication.

Inkjet Printing for Advanced Manufacturing: PCBs, Flexible Electronics, Wearables & Beyond

Developed by <a href="https://www.trinckle.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trinckle</a>, this tool streamlines the process, letting you create 3D-printable, part-specific fixtures in minutes. Learn how to use this tool step by step, from importing your part and adding supports to fine-tuning details and exporting or ordering the final design.With this app, you can create fixtures for various applications. For example, these are some of the popular ones: <ul><li>Machining fixtures</li><li>Measuring fixtures</li><li>Tool organizers and shadow boards</li><li>Bonding and welding fixtures</li><li>Inspection gauges</li><li>Carrier trays for internal logistics.</li></ul><h2>Step 1: Import Your Part File</h2>Begin by uploading your 3D model to fixturemate’s browser-based interface. You can find the tool directly on Xometry Pro under <a href="https://xometry.pro/en-eu/tools/">Free Tools</a>. Then, follow these steps:<ol><li>Go to <a href="https://xometry.pro/en-eu/tools/fixturemate/">fixturemate</a> and log in using your Xometry account credentials — the same password you use on <a href="http://get.xometry.eu/">get.xometry.eu</a>. If you don’t have an account yet, you’ll need to create one first <a href="https://get.xometry.eu/sign_up">here</a>.</li><li>In the top-left corner, click the cloud icon from the menu and then Import to import a file. Fixturemate supports key file formats, like STL, STEP, and 3MF.</li></ol><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1792484021808-1792484021808.png" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /><ol><li>Navigate to the location of your workpiece on your PC. Choose the workpiece file and then click Open.</li><li>A new dialog box opens, which asks you to choose the model units. Click on the appropriate unit and then complete the Import.</li></ol><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1792484035053-1792484035053.png" class="fr-fic fr-dib" />Your workpiece will be uploaded, and you will be ready to start working on it in a few minutes.<h2 id="isPasted">Step 2: Define the Contact Surfaces</h2>Mark strong, stable, and non-critical surfaces, and avoid delicate, precise, or functional areas. These are the areas where the fixture will make contact with the part. Let’s explore how to do that in fixturemate.<ol><li>Add a baseplate to your workpiece:<ol><li>Click on the baseplate icon on the menu. </li><li>Choose your preferred baseplate. It can be a rectangular or convex hull. The standard components available in fixturemate are the perforated panel and a metal or wooden plate. Let’s use a perforated baseplate in this guide.</li></ol></li></ol><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1792484054424-1792484054424.png" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /><ol><li>Specify the shape, width, depth, height, and other parameters. You can use the default parameters. These parameters can be changed later on as needed. Once completed, click Submit.</li></ol><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1792484062678-1792484062678.png" class="fr-fic fr-dib" />For our example, you don’t need to make any size or orientation adjustments since the part fits on the baseplate (see the top view below).<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1792484071946-1792484071946.png" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /><h2 id="isPasted">Step 3: Add Supports</h2>Fixturemate allows you to create support pillars in various shapes, including rectangular, cylindrical, conical, and custom-shaped or polygonal. Each shape is best suited for a specific use. For example:<ul><li>Use rectangular supports for broad, flat contact areas.</li><li>Use cylindrical supports for round or localized support zones.</li><li>Use custom shapes when the support area is irregular or complex.</li></ul>Let’s keep things simple by using only rectangular support structures in this guide. This procedure remains the same for other shapes. Proceed as follows:<ol><li>Select the support icon from the menu. </li><li>Click Select and then choose Rectangular.</li></ol><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1792484081596-1792484081596.png" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /><ol><li>Use the crosshair tool to click on the baseplate to define the support’s center. Click once to set the center point, and then move your mouse and click again to add the size and orientation. Fixturemate will automatically extrude the pillar to touch the bottom of the workpiece.</li><li>Follow the above procedure to place all the remaining support structures. The size can be adjusted from the support menu on the left.</li></ol><h2>Step 4: Adjust Fixture Parameters</h2>The next step is adjusting the fixture settings to match your specific application. Adjustable parameters in fixturemate include the following:<ul><li>Fixture height: Determines the elevation of the part from the base.</li><li>Wall and base thickness: Controls structural strength and print time.</li><li>Support structure type: Choose from options such as posts, ribs, or frames for different levels of rigidity and material savings.</li></ul>Proceed as follows to adjust the height and width of any support structure of your choice:<ol><li>Identify the center point of the support structure and click on it. This will activate the menu items on the left, where you can manually type the desired height and width. Repeat the process for all the support structures on your workpiece.</li><li>You may find that the workpiece interferes with the support structures. Let’s deal with that from the fourth item in the left-hand menu. This allows us to subtract workpieces.</li><li>The first thing you want to do is to raise the workpiece a few millimeters above the baseplate for a clearer view. Click on the center point of the workpiece and adjust the absolute position z accordingly.</li><li>To remove the interference, click the fourth icon on the menu and then the checkbox. A prompt window will appear, allowing you to set the global offset and preview resolution according to your requirements.</li></ol><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1792484091947-1792484091947.png" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /><ol><li>This will subtract the geometry of the workpieces from the interfering support structures. Here you have the option to define the global offset, which will apply to all support elements. This value can be fine-tuned to enable a snug fit when the workpiece is fitted into the fixture.</li></ol><h3>Bonus Step</h3>If the design doesn’t include a 3D-printed baseplate, attach the support elements to the baseplate manually. To do that, right-click the center dot of the support element and select mounting from the context menu.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1792484100542-1792484100542.png" class="fr-fic fr-dib" />You can then click to activate the surrounding red dots of the support element where you want it to be mounted. If you make a mistake, you can right-click and select delete to erase the red dot, or left-click and drag to move it to a different hole.Adjust the mounting base thickness, counterbore diameter, and center bore depth accordingly. Click Finish to complete the mounting creation. Repeat this procedure to create mountings for all support structures in your design.The completed workpiece, with all support structures and mounting holes, is shown below.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1792484110985-1792484110985.png" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /><h2 id="isPasted">Step 5: Preview and Validate the Design</h2>Fixturemate provides real-time 3D visualization of the fixture and your part together. This step is critical for checking and confirming the following:<ul><li>Orientation and part positioning</li><li>Adequate support without interference</li><li>Smooth probe clearance if the fixture is intended for CMM inspection</li></ul>Make all necessary changes and correct all spotted mistakes at this step to ensure the exported file is error-free and ready for 3D printing.<h2>Step 6: Order the Fixture</h2>After validation:<ul><li>Order the fixture directly through Xometry’s manufacturing network, with instant quoting and material selection.</li></ul>This option allows teams to leverage Xometry’s production capacity for professional results.Click on the last icon from the menu on the left side and then click the proceed button. Your design will be automatically pushed to Xometry.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1792484120829-1792484120829.png" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /><h2 id="isPasted">How to Order Fixtures Using Xometry’s Manufacturing Network</h2>As soon as your fixture is complete and you are redirected to your <a href="https://get.xometry.eu/">customer account on Xometry</a>, you can select the 3D printing technology, material, and surface finish option that best suits your application. After making your selections, the system will automatically generate an instant quote — no need for additional CAD work or manual adjustments.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1792484129587-1792484129587.png" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /><h2 id="isPasted">Your Next Step in Smarter Fixturing</h2>Whether you’re preparing for CMM inspection, assembly, or work holding, fixturemate enables you to go from part file to ready-to-print fixture in minutes. Try<a href="https://xometry.pro/en-eu/tools/fixturemate/"> fixturemate</a> and experience a faster way to create custom 3D-printed fixtures.<h2 id="isPasted">fixturemate: Custom 3D-Printed Fixtures in Clicks</h2>Easily design custom fixtures with a free, intuitive tool. Export 3D files optimised for 3D printing in just 20 minutes to your Xometry account.<a href="https://xometry.pro/en-eu/tools/fixturemate/" id="isPasted" class="button-main-action">Launch fixturemate Now</a>

Designing custom fixtures is usually time-consuming and CAD-heavy. Fixturemate tool is a parametric online configurator available exclusively for Xometry users.

How To Create 3D-Printed Fixtures Using fixturemate?

The energy sector is at a critical point, where providers are at once facing concerns related to climate change, resource supply, and geopolitical insecurities while also having to meet growing demand for energy around the globe. All these intersecting factors have been challenging to balance but have been top of mind within the energy segment. As McKinsey &amp; Company stated in its 2025 Global Energy Perspective report, “Energy affordability, reliability (including energy security at the national or regional level), and emission reduction continue to form a trio of priorities that drive energy decision-making.”[1]The challenge remains clear: how can energy suppliers make energy generation more efficient and sustainable—in line with climate and emissions goals—while keeping operations economically competitive? In recent years, additive manufacturing has presented itself as a potential solution to this hurdle. That is, the technology can enable greater sustainability (even within non-renewable energy sectors), boost supply chain resilience, and support an economic shift towards greater energy resource efficiency. At <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/automotive-and-additive-manufacturing-converge-at-formnext-2026">Formnext 2026, the leading global additive manufacturing</a> trade show, AM’s growing role in the energy and oil &amp; gas sectors will be spotlighted, with various real-world use cases on display, exhibitors presenting energy AM solutions from across the value chain, and discussions on the latest trends and innovations in the field. <h2>Why Energy is Embracing AM</h2>Organizations across the energy sector are realizing the benefits of <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-additive-manufacturing-process-chain-and-its-industry-interfaces">additive manufacturing</a> and are increasingly turning to the technology to solve issues related to supply chains, productivity, and overall efficiency. At present, there are specific areas where AM is having the biggest impact; they include:<ul><li>On-demand manufacturing of spare parts, including obsolete or hard-to-source components that keep energy generation systems up and running and minimize system downtimes. </li><li>Repairing worn or damaged structures using large-scale metal deposition processes to extend the lifetimes of legacy systems and minimize system downtimes. </li><li>Designing and producing higher-performing, more efficient, and more lightweight systems like heat exchangers, turbines, energy storage devices, fuel cells, and more. </li></ul><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1791995531805-1791995531805.jpeg" width="518" height="345" class="fr-fic fr-dii" />3D printer filament. Source: AdobeStock.Across these three applications, AM is unlocking greater sustainability for energy-related manufacturing by minimizing material waste, enabling distributed manufacturing, and reducing transport emissions. Moreover, the digital, on-demand nature of additive solutions reduces the reliance on large-scale inventories, enabling energy companies to start swapping physical warehouses for digital inventories. Overall, the ability to produce spare parts on demand can mitigate the serious revenue hits and power supply issues caused by downtimes to oil rigs and power plants. This is particularly true in sectors like oil and gas, which typically operate in remote areas and are subject to many supply chain delays. <img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1791995531811-1791995531811.jpeg" width="624" height="351" class="fr-fic fr-dii" />3D printer creating prototypes using additive manufacturing. Source: AdobeStock.<h2>AM in Energy Use Cases</h2>The AM industry is seeing a steady adoption increase from the energy sector and a push for more application development and qualification. In a new whitepaper published by Formnext, “<a href="https://formnext.mesago.com/frankfurt/en/industry-insights/whitepaper/whitepaper-energy-oil-gas-industry.html">Additive Manufacturing in the Energy, Oil and Gas Industries: How 3D Printing Improves Energy Supply</a>”, a number of relevant use cases are highlighted. The first is from Norwegian oil &amp; gas company Vår Energi, which uses AM for spare parts production and repairs through its suppliers. With a focus on LPBF, WAAM, DED, and FDM, Vår Energi sees huge potential for AM to reduce costs and lead times for spare parts. Not only that, but the company has also worked with its suppliers to develop new components, like a 3D-printed add-on valve that streamlines operations and fits seamlessly into existing infrastructure.Equinor, a Norway-based multinational energy company, is also among those readily adopting AM. In fact, the company first adopted AM in 2016 and has used the technology for on-site repairs and spare parts production. For example, Equinor replaced an obsolete cooling fan for an electrical motor at its Tjeldbergodden industrial facility with a 3D-printed component. By replacing the part rather than replacing the entire motor and by sourcing it from a local manufacturer, Equinor brought its CO2 emissions down from  4.4 tons to 3.8 kg.[2] Notably, Vår Energi, Equinor, and other oil &amp; gas firms are part of a cross-industry effort to accelerate the development of a vast digital inventory of qualified components for energy systems. This digital inventory is managed by Fieldnode, a digital marketplace for industrial spare parts. <img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1791995531815-1791995531815.jpeg" width="624" height="263" class="fr-fic fr-dii" />Wind power and energy farm with wind turbines. Source: AdobeStock.In the wind energy sector, Danish turbine manufacturer Vestas is also embracing AM. To date, the company has built its own digital inventory comprising over 5,600 designs for tooling and spare parts. Not only does the company leverage AM to produce tooling and spare parts on-demand, but it also uses the technology to develop more optimized products, like turbines with optimized power curves and lighter-weight structures. The last case study is from Austria’s main public infrastructure and service provider Wiener Stadtwerke Group, which is leading the adoption of AM for spare parts through Wiener Netze, its central competence center for 3D printing. 3D printing ensures that the company can access “orphaned” components that are critical to the country’s power infrastructure, resulting in cost savings, fewer plant downtimes, and extending the life of legacy systems. <img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1791995531848-1791995531848.png" width="624" height="351" class="fr-fic fr-dii" />Source / Copyright: Formnext Mesago Messe Frankfurt. (Bottom left &amp; bottom right: Marc Jacquemin. Bottom center: Mathias Kutt)<h2>Formnext 2026 Industry Highlights</h2>From <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/automotive-and-additive-manufacturing-converge-at-formnext-2026">November 17 to 20, Formnext 2026</a> will be highlighting the growing relevance of AM in the energy sector. There, various AM technology companies that work with energy providers will be exhibiting their solutions and highlighting use cases from the field. In addition, the topic will be addressed in the<a href="https://formnext.mesago.com/frankfurt/en/expo/program/event-calendar.html#/?day=2026-11-17&amp;location=industry-application-stage"> stage program</a> through presentations and discussions on current industry developments and applications.<a href="https://formnext.mesago.com/frankfurt/en/expo/visitor-information.html??wt_mc=Display-Banner.ahgz.mf-mesago.formnext.cross-country.vt.cv.wevolver_energy_vp">Full program and tickets can be found here.</a>Outside of the event itself, Formnext organizers have put together resources focused on additive manufacturing in energy, oil &amp; gas. These include the aforementioned whitepaper and <a href="https://formnext.mesago.com/frankfurt/en/industry-insights/energy.html?wt_mc=Display-Banner.ahgz.mf-mesago.formnext.cross-country.vt.cv.wevolver_energy_tp#technology-talk">Formnext Technology Talk</a>, a web special in which industry experts discuss AM’s impact in energy, the state of the segment, and developments on the horizon. Those seeking to go deeper still can also find more use cases and insights on <a href="https://formnext.mesago.com/frankfurt/en/industry-insights.html">Formnext’s Industry Insights page</a>. <hr /><h3>References</h3><ol><li>Global Energy Perspective 2025 [Internet]. McKinsey &amp; Company, October 13, 2025. <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/energy-and-materials/our-insights/global-energy-perspective">https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/energy-and-materials/our-insights/global-energy-perspective</a> </li><li>3D printing – from science fiction to industrial reality [Internet]. Equinor, May 16, 2023. <a href="https://www.equinor.com/magazine/3d-printing">https://www.equinor.com/magazine/3d-printing</a> </li></ol>

The energy and oil & gas sectors are undergoing transformation and additive manufacturing has a big role to play in this shift.

Formnext 2026 Highlights Additive Manufacturing Growing Impact on Energy Sector

<a href="https://cdfam.com/pasteur-labs-nyc25/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Alexander Lavin of Pasteur Labs</a> spent his New York presentation at CDFAM on simulation intelligence, and stopped partway through to name the thing underneath it: the data interfaces problem in digital engineering.<blockquote>If you think you don’t have this data problem, you just haven’t run into it yet.— Alexander Lavin, Pasteur Labs, CDFAM NYC 2025</blockquote><iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/SfypDDqn0qY?&amp;t=986s&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" class="fr-draggable">                   </iframe>Pasteur hit it early, four years before that talk, and ended up building a data engineering pipeline for its own machine learning staff before it could build much else on top.That is the shape of it across four years of CDFAM presentations. Many of the talks that look like they are about AI turn out, once you get past the demo, to be about data: where it came from, what format it arrived in, and whether it carries the information the problem actually depends on.A 2022 article opened on the gap between text-to-image progress and 3D engineering, and landed on the reason: “the same volume of open data does not exist for 3D objects in quite the same way.” Four years later, the three answers taking shape are common formats, synthetic data, and fields.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1789403099289-3MF+ISO+Banner+150+X.jpg" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /><h2> </h2><h2>Formats are the Plumbing</h2>Geometry has to move between tools before anything else can happen, and the format it moves in decides what survives the trip. The STL problem is the familiar version: a lattice or a TPMS structure described by a short mathematical function becomes an enormous pile of triangles the moment it is tessellated, and the design freedom is then capped by triangle count.The <a href="https://3mf.io/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">3MF Consortium</a>’s Volumetric and Implicit Extension attacks this by letting a file carry spatial functions — a stack of images, a mathematical function, or both — so material properties and geometry travel as the thing itself. Jan Orend, who contributes to the specification on behalf of EOS, framed the stakes plainly in a <a href="https://cdfam.com/3mf-consortium-volumetric-and-implicit-extension-release/" target="_blank">CDFAM interview</a>: the consortium exists to solve “the interoperability challenges that are holding back the industry.”That matters more now than it did when the extension was released. Every agentic workflow demonstrated assumes tools can call each other and hand over geometry without losing what makes it meaningful. Wesley Essink of Siemens showed the receiving end, exporting the same implicit model out as volumetric data, mesh, B-rep, beams or slice data depending on where it was headed next.<h2>Synthetic data, because the real stuff is expensive and wrong</h2>The bottleneck Francis Bitonti of <a href="https://www.lexset.ai" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Lexset </a>described in 2023 has aged well. Collect images, send them to a third party for annotation, wait, run quality assurance, send them back with feedback, repeat. Hundreds of people touching your data, biases and fatigue baked into the labels, security exposure, and a cycle his customers measured in months.<blockquote>Before working with us this process can take about six months, and we’ve even had some customers say this takes a year to go and collect these data sets.— Francis Bitonti, Lexset, CDFAM NYC 2023</blockquote><iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/RANHS_7PpE4?&amp;t=296s&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" class="fr-draggable">          </iframe>His conclusion was that crowdsourcing does not scale with model size, and that simulation and synthetic data are where the field goes next. It went there. Verena Vogler of McNeel Europe described teams using Grasshopper to generate training sets as a matter of course. Wasil Rezk of BeyondMath showed models trained on self-generated data grounded in first principles rather than on a customer’s simulation archive, reporting predictions within a few percent of full CFD while needing an order of magnitude less data, and more to the point, generalising to geometries the model had never seen.The economic argument is the one that lands with manufacturers. Training data you generate is training data you do not have to buy, annotate, or wait a year for.<h2>Fields, where words run out</h2>The most interesting shift is in what counts as data in the first place.Mike Frei of ARENA-AI opened his Barcelona talk on human intuition — how we know by looking how heavy something is, learned across thousands of small physical feedbacks. Then he put up a band-pass filter, a structure used in RF constantly, and demonstrated how the electromagnetic wave propagates through it.<blockquote>Probably few of you would know. Even fewer people actually have an intuition of how to change the structure to have it do something different.— Mike Frei, ARENA-AI, CDFAM Barcelona 2026 · <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dd80tO-pZzM&amp;t=160s" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">watch</a></blockquote><iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Dd80tO-pZzM?&amp;t=160s&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" class="fr-draggable">        </iframe>An 8mm square, one layer, and the simulation still takes minutes. A modern system might be twenty layers and half a metre across. There is no vocabulary that compresses this usefully, because the thing being described is a continuous field, and language is the wrong container for it. His group’s answer is two models: a forward model that takes geometry and materials and characterises the electromagnetic behaviour, and an inverse model that runs the other way.The same logic shows up in geometry tools. Essink’s demonstration of field-driven design treats a parameter as something that varies through space rather than as a number — lattice parameters, fillet radii, shell thicknesses, all under spatial control.<blockquote>This is really where we can take data and map it to the geometry, because a lot of the data that we work with is either volumetric or planar.— Wesley Essink, Siemens Digital Industries Software, CDFAM Barcelona 2026</blockquote>The inputs he listed are instructive: CAD features, simulation output, raw point clouds, a CSV with a scalar at every point, image data. Any of it can drive geometry once geometry accepts fields as an input. Luminary’s <a href="https://cdfam.com/luminary/" target="_blank">case for physics AI as a strategic advantage</a> rests on the same foundation — the value sits in the field data, and in being able to compute over it fast enough to stay in the loop.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1789403334890-Coreform+A+range+of+analyses+run+with+IGA.jpeg" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" /><h2>What this adds up to</h2>Formats decide what can move. Synthetic data decides what can be learned. Fields decide what can be expressed at all. The AI tooling is the visible layer, and it rests on those three.Which is the same thing people at CDFAM were discussing<a href="https://cdfam.com/the-need-for-data-for-ai-generated-engineering/" target="_blank"> in 2022</a>, before there was much to demonstrate: more than geometry, this needs design intent and validation.<hr />Hear it from the people building itSearch the <a href="https://cdfam.com/presentation-index/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CDFAM presentation index</a>, with transcripts of every recorded presentation in the series. Search by speaker, company or topic, or search what was actually said to find the moment itself. Every result links to the exact second of the recording.

The data problem

The Data Foundation for Engineering with AI

Across four years of <a href="https://cdfam.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CDFAM Computational Design Symposium</a> talks, AI agents have gone from a research curiosity to something structural engineers run in Slack. The record of how fast that happened is sitting in the transcripts.<table><tbody><tr><td>Event</td><td>Talks referencing AI agents</td></tr><tr><td>NYC 2023</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Berlin 2024</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>NYC 2024</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Amsterdam 2025</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>NYC 2025</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Barcelona 2026</td><td>14</td></tr><tr><td>Washington DC 2026</td><td>4 of 6, so far</td></tr></tbody></table><a href="https://cdfam.com/cd-dc-26/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Washington DC</a> recordings are still incomplete. Four of the first six talks released mention agents.The word arrived before the capability. In 2023, when Chris McComb of Carnegie Mellon described agents to a <a href="https://cdfam.com/nyc/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CDFAM audience in New York</a>, he was reporting an experiment rather than a product. His group had run human design teams against hybrid ones, and the hybrid teams were missing half their people.<blockquote>We had some human teams, we had some hybrid teams where we ripped out half of the people and replaced them with AI agents.Chris McComb, Carnegie Mellon University, CDFAM NYC 2023</blockquote><iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/72yVB9_PNJE?&amp;t=868s&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" class="fr-draggable">              </iframe>The finding was that the hybrid teams held up, and that they held up because communication went up rather than down. People took on what McComb called the role of an AI handler, translating between the model and the task so the agents could stay useful members of the team. Two years later that description reads less like a laboratory result and more like a job.<h2>The Turn</h2>What changed between 2023 and now was not the idea but the plumbing. By the Amsterdam symposium in 2025, Andrew Sartorelli of Synera was describing an agentic layer sitting on top of automated workflows that already existed, wired into the systems a manufacturer actually keeps its knowledge in: product lifecycle management, simulation data management, requirements tracking. The agents were not being asked to invent engineering. They were being given access to it.<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/RfBTGqdDsRg?&amp;t=328s&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" class="fr-draggable">             </iframe>That is the pattern that repeats across every discipline in the year since. The interesting work is rarely the model. It is the harness.<h2>Aerospace</h2>Ryan McClelland's generatively designed spacecraft parts at NASA Goddard were already familiar to the CDFAM audience by 2024, but the agent question he raised was about assembly rather than geometry. Once individual evolved components exist, they can be combined into larger systems either by code or by agents, until an automated electronic box is something you specify rather than something you draw. The unit of design moves up a level.<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/DV_DVw0UIF0?&amp;t=1257s&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" class="fr-draggable">           </iframe><h2>Automotive</h2>The most concrete automotive account came from SEAT in <a href="https://cdfam.com/bcn/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Barcelona in 2026</a>. A year of automation work on body-in-white development had already cut development time from two hours to five minutes in one case, and from forty-two hours to one in another, before agents entered the picture at all.What they showed next was a multi-agent system for sheet metal manufacturability. An engineer uploads a CAD component into a chat window and a supervisor orchestrates the agents beneath it: one extracting geometry such as wall thicknesses and blank size, another running forming simulation, others handling cost and carbon once sourcing data is supplied.<blockquote>There's a supervisor which is calling and orchestrating all the agents underneath.Tilman Steininger, Synera, CDFAM Barcelona 2026</blockquote>The output is not a verdict but a location. If a component cannot be made, the system returns images showing where the problem is, and the engineer goes back into CATIA to resolve it. That loop, rather than any individual model, is the product.<h2>Architecture</h2>Architecture and structural engineering produced the year's most concrete demonstrations, possibly because the work is so heavily gated by specialist availability. At CD/DC in Washington, Sergey Pigach of CORE studio showed an agentic system his firm runs on AWS and interacts with through Slack. Ask it, in a sentence, for a concrete column stack and footing for a five-storey residential building in New York and let it make the remaining assumptions, and it calls the same tools the firm's engineers use, renders the column and writes a design summary.<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/TqKjZU0UfT0?&amp;t=189s&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" class="fr-draggable">         </iframe>His framing of why it works is the sharpest line anyone offered on the subject.<blockquote>It's not a domain expertise problem. It's really an unhobbling problem.Sergey Pigach, CORE studio | Thornton Tomasetti, CDFAM Washington DC 2026</blockquote>Frontier models, on his evidence, are already competent at engineering work. What they lack is a way to reach the tools. Pigach also noted something easy to overlook: the agent lives in Slack deliberately, because putting it in a shared space where people already work changes the relationship compared with sitting down in front of a chatbot.Matthew Goldsberry and Junling Zhuang of HDR gave the practitioner's counterweight at NYC 2025, opening by locating themselves precisely: from the trenches of trying to use these tools in an architecture firm. Their term for it, form jamming, describes assembling AI coding tools and image generation into something usable per project, and their conclusion was that the framework matters more than any finished pipeline.<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/fv6yCKngCe0?&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" class="fr-draggable">       </iframe>At Barcelona, Augmenta described full automation of mechanical, electrical and plumbing design as fully agentic, compressing MEP work from weeks to days, while noting plainly that there is a long way still to go.<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tmgj-DoGXHQ?&amp;t=784s&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" class="fr-draggable">      </iframe><h2>Industrial design</h2>The consumer-facing end of the field has been slower to use the word and quicker to build the constraints agents will eventually need. Ruben Verhack of Datameister put the problem precisely at Amsterdam in 2025. Industrial design is governed by hard points: fixed locations, dimensions and rules that cannot move without major consequence, whether that is where a car's engine and occupants sit or where the batteries and cooling zones fall in a consumer device.<blockquote>You don't want to be creative on these things.Ruben Verhack, Datameister, CDFAM Amsterdam 2025</blockquote><iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/zoSI979fcjw?&amp;t=165s&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" class="fr-draggable">     </iframe>General-purpose visual AI generates from the surface inward, he argued, while design works from the inside out, and the last twenty percent is always where it breaks. His team's answer was to constrain generation to geometry already known to be manufacturable, so an exterior can be explored freely around components that are fixed. Laurence Cook of Generative Engineering made a parallel case at Barcelona for splitting a simulation pipeline apart, so stress, impact displacement and manufacturing cost can be explored alongside a designer working in the language of form.<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/-RjobfZM634?&amp;t=757s&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" class="fr-draggable">    </iframe><h2>What has to exist underneath</h2>The most structural claim came from Intact Solutions at CD/DC. Today's tools, they argued, give you a co-pilot sitting inside an application. What replaces it is a set of agents standing in for domain and subject-matter experts, talking to each other, over what has to be a robust callable physics infrastructure underneath. Without that layer there is nothing for an agent to call, and the demonstration collapses into text generation about engineering rather than engineering.<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/cwEyKEsIIQ0?&amp;t=513s&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" class="fr-draggable">   </iframe>That is also why the sceptical voices this year have been so precise. SimScale's Andrew Acuff opened his CD/DC talk by renaming it: the programme said agentic workflows were reshaping simulation-driven product development, and he told the room he preferred accelerating, because the iterative loop between design and simulation is worth keeping. What he wanted gone was the waiting.<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Mr3H905ePsg?&amp;t=55s&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" class="fr-draggable">  </iframe>Read across four years, that is the actual shape of the change. Not the arrival of autonomous design, which nobody credible is claiming, but the steady disappearance of the queue.<h2>Hear it from the people building it</h2>Every talk quoted here is in the CDFAM presentation index, along with transcripts of every other recorded presentation from the symposium series. Search by speaker, company or topic, or search what was said to find the moment itself. Every result links to the exact second of the recording.<a href="https://cdfam.com/presentation-index/" target="_blank">Explore the CDFAM presentation index</a><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1789145485842-SearchforspecifictermsatCDFAM-ezgif.com-video-to-gif-converter.gif" style="width:100%px" class="fr-fic fr-dib" />

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