H Bridge Motor Control: A Complete Guide for Engineers 2025

Introduction

The H Bridge is a fundamental circuit configuration in modern motor control systems, enabling precise control over the direction and speed of DC motors. Widely used in robotics, automation, and automotive applications, an H Bridge allows engineers to reverse motor polarity without physically altering wiring, making it essential for bidirectional motion. 

In 2025, advancements in semiconductor technology, MOSFET efficiency, and control algorithms have significantly enhanced H Bridge performance, offering higher power density, improved thermal management, and seamless integration with microcontrollers. This versatility makes the H Bridge a preferred choice for applications ranging from small IoT devices to industrial machinery. 

Understanding its working principle, design considerations, and common control methods is critical for engineers aiming to develop reliable and efficient motor control solutions. This guide provides a comprehensive technical overview, equipping you with the knowledge to design, implement, and optimize H Bridge circuits for next-generation engineering projects!

Basics & Construction of H-Bridge

History and Basics

The concept of the H bridge dates back to early electromechanical systems, where relay-based switching allowed engineers to reverse the polarity of direct current (DC) motors.  The evolution of semiconductor technology, including BJTs, MOSFETs, and later wide-bandgap FETs, has replaced relays, enabling faster switching, higher efficiency, and compact H-bridge motor driver integration. Today, the H-bridge circuit is fundamental in applications ranging from robotics to industrial automation, automotive systems, and renewable energy control.

H bridge can be built using a variety of approaches, ranging from simple relay-based designs to high-performance MOSFET and BJT configurations. The choice depends on application requirements such as switching speed, efficiency, size, and durability.

Relay-Based H Bridges

One basic method uses an array of relays, often from a relay board, to create the switching configuration. A double-pole double-throw (DPDT) relay can achieve the same electrical functionality as an H-bridge, enabling direct current to flow in either the forward or reverse direction. However, semiconductor-based H bridges are preferred when high-speed switching, small size, low drive voltage, or elimination of mechanical wear is required.

A hybrid approach uses a DPDT relay for direction control and a transistor (BJT or MOSFET) to enable current flow. This extends relay life by switching it while the transistor is off, and also allows PWM control for speed regulation.

N and P Channel Semiconductor Designs

A solid-state H-bridge circuit often uses PNP BJTs or P-channel MOSFETs for the high-side switches, and NPN BJTs or N-channel MOSFETs for the low-side switches. This arrangement simplifies gate driving for the high side while maintaining efficient conduction paths.

N-Channel MOSFET-Only Designs

High-efficiency designs typically use N-channel MOSFETs for both high and low sides, thanks to their lower on-resistance compared to P-channel types. Driving the high-side FETs requires a gate voltage higher than the DC bus, achieved using:

• Charge Pumps in integrated MOSFET driver ICs

• Isolated DC–DC Converters, such as multiple-output flyback converters

• Gate Drive Transformers (GDTs) with ferrite toroid cores, optimized for minimal leakage inductance and high-frequency operation, often with Zener diode clamps for gate protection

Variants of the H Bridge

Common variations include:

• Half-Bridge: Uses two transistors on one side, like a class AB amplifier. It cannot reverse polarity but is common in SMPS and switching amplifiers.

• Three-Phase Inverter: Adds a third leg, enabling AC motor control and variable frequency drives.

• Half-Controlled Bridge: Replaces one high-side and one low-side device with diodes, preventing shoot-through and suitable for actuators that do not require bidirectional current.

Commercial H Bridge Modules

Numerous H-bridge motor driver ICs are available, from entry-level hobbyist modules to industrial-grade packages. Examples include:

• L298 dual H-bridge motor driver

• L293x series (older but still widely used in educational and hobby circuits)

• L9110, featuring built-in flyback diodes for back-EMF protection

These integrated solutions simplify breadboard prototyping and reduce external component count, making them ideal for both beginners and professionals.

Recommended Reading: How Do MOSFETs Work: Comprehensive Technical Guide for Engineers (2025)

Understanding the H Bridge Topology

Basic Operation and Switching States

H bridge is a core motor control topology widely used for driving direct current motors in robotics, automation, and industrial systems. It consists of four switching elements—most commonly MOSFETs or, in some cases, IGBTs—arranged so that the load is connected between the midpoints of two half-bridges. The top switches (S1 and S2) connect to the positive power supply, while the bottom switches (S3 and S4) connect to ground (GND).

Activating one diagonal pair (S1 and S4) creates current flow through the motor in the forward direction. Activating the opposite diagonal (S2 and S3) reverses the polarity, enabling bidirectional operation. Turning on both high-side switches or both low-side switches shorts the motor terminals, creating a dynamic brake that dissipates kinetic energy through intrinsic diodes. Turning all switches off lets the motor coast as inductive energy circulates naturally.

Digital control platforms achieve variable speed by using Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). The controller modulates the duty cycle of the driving signals, effectively adjusting the average voltage across the motor. Because DC motors act as first-order systems with electrical and mechanical time constants, the average current and torque respond smoothly to PWM even though the voltage waveform is pulsed.

Avoiding Shoot-Through and the Need for Dead Time

One of the critical design requirements is preventing shoot through: a short circuit from the supply to ground when both the high side and low side devices in one leg conduct simultaneously. Shoot-through can destroy transistors and cause substantial current spikes. 

Engineers introduce a small dead time—typically 100–300 ns for silicon MOSFETs—to allow one device to turn off completely before turning on its complement. Many integrated gate driver chips provide configurable dead time and interlock logic to eliminate overlaps.

The H Bridge as a Polarity Reverser

Mathematically, an H bridge acts as a bidirectional chopper. The motor current Im(t) obeys the differential equation:

Here, Vdc is the supply voltage, Eb is the back electromotive force proportional to motor speed, Rm and Lm are the motor’s resistance and inductance, and σ represents the switching state (+1 forward, -1 reverse, 0 coast). The mechanical torque tau is proportional to current as: 

By changing sigma through PWM, both direction and torque magnitude can be controlled. The symmetry in ±σ ensures identical performance in forward and reverse if the electronic circuit is balanced.

Device Selection: MOSFETs, IGBTs and Wide Bandgap

For voltages below approximately 200 V and currents below a few tens of amperes, N-channel MOSFETs are favored due to low conduction losses, fast switching and availability of integrated packages. When currents climb into the hundreds of amperes or voltages exceed several hundred volts, IGBTs become competitive because they can handle higher power but switch more slowly. The wide bandgap devices, such as gallium nitride (GaN) and silicon carbide (SiC), combine high voltage capability with fast switching. GaN transistors dominate below 650 V, while SiC is preferred for voltages above 900 V.

One constraint with MOSFETs is driving the high-side device! Because its source terminal moves with the motor voltage, a gate driver must supply a voltage greater than Vdc to fully enhance the transistor. The techniques include bootstrap capacitors and charge pumps. Many modern H-bridge motor drivers integrate these circuits, simplifying DC motor driver design.

Recommended Reading: PMOS vs NMOS: Unraveling the Differences in Transistor Technology

Step-by-Step H Bridge Design Methodology

Designing an H-bridge circuit for DC motor control requires balancing electrical performance, cost, reliability, and ease of integration. The following process provides a systematic approach for hardware engineers:

1. Specify Electrical Requirements

Identify the nominal voltage, continuous current, peak current and desired speed or torque range of the motor. Here, you need to consider environmental extremes, supply fluctuations, and fault conditions. 

For example, a 24 V DC motor with 10 A continuous and 20 A peak current should use components rated for at least 40 V and 30 A to accommodate transients and prevent short circuit failures.

2. Select Switches and Topology

Select between MOSFETs and IGBTs based on the required voltage and current. For MOSFETs, ensure the drain-source voltage rating is at least 1.3 times the nominal voltage, and select devices with low on-resistance to minimize conduction loss: 

Wide-bandgap devices like GaN and SiC offer lower losses and faster switching, though at a higher cost. Decide whether to use discrete transistors or integrated H-bridge motor drivers. Integrated ICs often include protection, diagnostics, and built-in driver circuits. 

In 2025, many of these chips can handle 40–50 V and 3–5 A, and include features such as low standby current and under-voltage lockout. 

3. Choose Gate Drivers

A proper driver IC can make or break the design. It must provide sufficient gate charge at the target PWM frequency to turn on the MOSFETs fully, and it should include dead time control to prevent shoot-through. High-side drive often requires bootstrap capacitors or charge pumps to handle polarity changes across motor terminals. 

It is better to evaluate the common-mode transient immunity and propagation delay of the driver to ensure robust operation at desired switching speeds.

4. Set PWM Frequency and Dead Time

Select a Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) frequency that balances audible noise and switching losses. Frequencies between 20 kHz and 100 kHz are common; 25 kHz is above the upper threshold of human hearing. Dead time should exceed the maximum turn-off time of the MOSFET plus margin. 

For example, if the MOSFET turns off in 50 ns, a dead time of 200 ns provides safety. Too much dead time reduces effective voltage and increases ripple.

5. Incorporate Current Sensing and Protection

Use shunt resistors, Hall-effect sensors, or current transformers for real-time monitoring. Overcurrent protection safeguards against high current faults, while undervoltage and thermal protection prevent damage from extreme conditions. 

In 2025, the majority of  H-bridge motor drivers integrate torque detection and current flow monitoring for enhanced safety.

6. Provide Freewheel Paths

Motor inductance resists abrupt current changes, causing voltage spikes when switches turn off. Use the body diodes or external fast diodes in MOSFETs to allow current to flow during off periods. The choice affects reverse recovery losses and efficiency.

7. Simulate and Prototype

Before committing to hardware, simulate the circuit using tools such as LTspice 24 or QSPICE  to analyze transients, switching losses, and schematic optimization. Transient analysis further reveals voltage overshoot, current ripple and required dead time. Frequency response analysis in LTspice 24 allows control loop design. QSPICE supports large digital logic blocks and can generate MOSFET models from datasheet data. 

Once the simulation is completed, now build a prototype on a development board and verify performance with oscilloscopes and current probes.

Design Example: 24 V H Bridge for an 8 A Motor

For a 24 V, 8 A continuous (15 A peak) DC motor driver:

The following simplified pseudocode implements forward and reverse control:

c
const int PWM_A = 0;  // controls S1 & S4
const int PWM_B = 1;  // controls S2 & S3


void driveMotor(int dutyCycle, bool forward) {
    if (forward) {
        setPWM(PWM_A, dutyCycle);
        setPWM(PWM_B, 0);
    } else {
        setPWM(PWM_A, 0);
        setPWM(PWM_B, dutyCycle);
    }
}
// Timer ISR adds 200 ns dead time between switching edges

In production designs, incorporate feedback loops, fault handling, and a speed controller for closed-loop performance.

Industrial Applications of H Bridge

The versatility of the H bridge makes it an essential building block across robotics, automotive, industrial, renewable energy, and consumer electronics. 

Understanding these applications enables engineers to design H-bridge motor drivers that meet sector-specific requirements for efficiency, reliability, and control precision.

Robotics and Mechatronics

Mobile robots, drones, CNC machines, and 3D printers rely heavily on H-bridge circuits for precise DC motor control and stepper motor positioning. Accurate PWM control ensures smooth acceleration, stable speed, and fine positioning accuracy. Compact microcontroller-driven H-bridge ICs integrate protection, current sensing, and diagnostic features, offering over 95% efficiency to reduce heat and extend battery life. In robotics, high-side and low-side MOSFET designs are common for optimizing torque and responsiveness.

Automotive Systems

In the automotive sector, H bridges drive electric power steering, window lifts, seat adjusters, throttle bodies, and active grille shutters. Automotive-grade H-bridge motor drivers feature undervoltage lockout, thermal shutdown, and short-circuit protection for enhanced reliability. Advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and electric vehicles employ three-phase full-bridge architectures for brushless motor control, regenerative braking, and polarity reversal during bidirectional energy flow.

Industrial Automation

In factory automation, H-bridge motor drivers control linear actuators, conveyors, and servo systems, converting microcontroller-generated control signals into mechanical motion. For high-power drives, multilevel inverter topologies reduce harmonic distortion and operate at voltages of several kilovolts. Long-term reliability, high MTBF, and resistance to harsh environments are critical design considerations in this sector.

Renewable Energy and Grid Applications

H bridges play a key role in solar trackers, small wind turbines, and battery energy storage systems. They enable bidirectional operation for charging and discharging, as well as current flow management during regenerative braking or load deceleration. In grid-connected systems, H bridge stages are integral to inverters, converting DC from storage into AC power with high efficiency and low harmonic distortion.

Consumer Electronics

From toys to smart appliances, compact H-bridge motor drivers offer cost-effective motion control solutions. Integration into microcontrollers and SoCs reduces electronic circuit complexity, component count, and manufacturing costs. Low-voltage H-bridge circuits for consumer applications are designed for efficiency, small form factor, and ease of implementation, often using plug-and-play development boards like Arduino for rapid prototyping.

Sectors such as automotive, renewable energy, and consumer electronics continue to evolve; likewise, the H-bridge circuit will remain a key enabler of innovation in motion and power conversion.

Recommended Reading: High-Performance MOSFETs Driving Excellence and Innovations in Automotive Electronics

Integrating H Bridges with Digital Control Platforms

Modern H bridges rarely operate in isolation. They form part of complex digital systems that include microcontrollers, FPGAs, sensors and communication interfaces. 

The successful integration requires a coordinated hardware–software design approach to ensure performance, safety, and scalability.

Microcontroller Selection and PWM Generation

For DC motor control, microcontrollers with advanced PWM units are ideal. They provide high-resolution duty cycle adjustment, dead time insertion, complementary outputs, and multi-channel synchronization. For high-performance applications—such as high-speed robotics or precision servo systems—DSPs or FPGAs can generate PWM in the tens of megahertz and implement algorithms like Field-Oriented Control (FOC) or space vector modulation.

Feedback Sensors and Control Loops

Feedback is essential for precise control. Current sensors, based on shunt resistors or Hall-effect sensors, monitor motor current and protect against overload. Position or speed sensors, such as encoders or resolvers, provide information for closed-loop control. Some H-bridge drivers introduced in 2025 integrate current monitoring and torque change detection, simplifying feedback circuitry.

Control algorithms range from simple proportional controllers to sophisticated PID and model predictive controllers. Digital control allows software adjustments and adaptation to different loads. A typical closed-loop system measures current and speed, compares them to setpoints and adjusts the PWM duty cycle accordingly.

Communication Interfaces

In distributed systems, such as those in automotive and industrial automation, motors often require centralized coordination. Communication protocols such as CAN, LIN, SPI, and I²C enable microcontrollers to control multiple H-bridges while exchanging diagnostic data. For instance, a central ECU may control window motors via LIN, with feedback on temperature and current flow for protection. Many modern H-bridge circuits expose configurable registers over these protocols for tuning and fault reporting.

Power Management and Safety

The stable power supply rails and robust protection are essential. Integration with power management ICs prevents voltage dips and transients from damaging the H bridge. Under-voltage lockout circuits disable operation in brownout conditions, while thermal sensors—either on the PCB or embedded in the transistors—relay temperature data to the microcontroller. The firmware can then reduce duty cycle, shut down the bridge, or trigger alarms. Proper safety handling also mitigates risks like short circuits and reverse polarity connections.

In short, integrating an H bridge into a digital control platform transforms it from a simple power stage into an intelligent, adaptable motor control solution. By combining advanced PWM generation, precise feedback, robust communication, and comprehensive safety mechanisms, engineers can achieve higher efficiency, reliability, and functionality across applications—from robotics to automotive systems.

Recommended Reading: CAN vs LIN: A Comprehensive Technical Analysis of Automotive and Industrial Network Protocols

Comparing Modern Simulation and Design Tools

Robust designs benefit from comprehensive simulation before hardware build. Table 1 compares leading tools for H bridge design and analysis.

These tools complement one another. For quick circuit-level analysis, LTspice 24 is effective and includes advanced features such as FRA. QSPICE brings digital logic capabilities and a powerful model generator. PLECS supports detailed thermal analysis and can co-simulate with microcontrollers in real time. Simulink and Simscape allow high-level modelling and automatic C code generation, integrating the H-bridge into a complete system simulation.

Best Practices and Troubleshooting

Design pitfalls can compromise performance and reliability. Follow these practices to avoid common issues:

1. Prevent Shoot Through: Use gate drivers with built-in dead time or implement interlock logic in firmware. Verify with an oscilloscope that high and low side devices in each leg never overlap.

2. Manage Thermal Dissipation: Calculate the thermal resistance of the package and PCB. For a bridge dissipating 5 W and a thermal resistance of 50 °C/W, the junction temperature rises 250 °C above ambient. Use copper pours, thermal vias and heat sinks. Wide bandgap devices may reduce losses and heat.

3. Minimize Electromagnetic Interference: Keep loop areas small, twist gate drive and power return traces, and add snubber networks across the motor. Use ferrite beads and shielded cables to meet EMC standards.

4. Validate with Instrumentation: Use differential probes to measure gate voltages and current probes to monitor motor current. Verify dead time, ringing and overshoot. Record waveforms over temperature variations.

5. Comply with Standards: For automotive applications, adhere to AEC-Q100 and ISO 26262; for industrial drives, follow IEC 61800. Document failure modes and include protective functions such as overcurrent and overtemperature shutdown.

By following these best practices, your H-bridge designs will achieve maximum performance, reliability, and compliance across demanding applications.

Emerging Technologies and Research Trends

Recent advances are expanding the capabilities of H bridges and opening new research areas:

• Integrated Current Monitoring: Toshiba’s TB67H453FNG and FTG drivers (2025) integrate current sensing and torque change detection. They support 50 V and 3.5 A, achieving an ultra-low sleep current of 1 µA, ideal for battery-powered devices.

• Wide Bandgap Transistors: GaN and SiC devices deliver faster switching and lower losses than silicon. GaN dominates low to mid voltages, while SiC handles high voltages above 900 V. The efficiency improvements exceed 97% in motor drives.

• Smart H Bridge ICs: Many vendors integrate microcontrollers, current sensing, and communication interfaces into single packages, enabling plug-and-play motor drivers with functional safety features.

• Machine Learning Based Control: Adaptive algorithms adjust PWM duty cycle and dead time based on sensor feedback to minimize losses, reduce audible noise and predict faults. Research prototypes demonstrate self-tuning controllers for brushless motors.

• Digital Twins and IoT Connectivity: Cloud-connected models run in real time parallel with physical hardware, allowing predictive maintenance and remote updates. Standards such as ISO 15118 will support vehicle-to-grid operation, requiring bidirectional bridges.

These trends point toward more innovative, more efficient and more connected motor control solutions.

Recommended Reading: Harnessing the Power of Digital Twins for Seamless Digital Thread Integration

Advanced Applications and Techniques

H bridges enable functions beyond simple motor reversal! 

Engineers should understand these advanced capabilities:

• Regenerative Braking: By controlling the switching sequence, the H bridge can return kinetic energy to the power source during deceleration. This technique increases energy efficiency in electric vehicles and robotics.

• Synchronous Rectification: In DC–DC converters, replacing diodes with actively driven MOSFETs reduces conduction losses. H-bridges configured as synchronous rectifiers achieve higher efficiency in power supplies.

• Four-Quadrant Operation: The ability to handle both positive and negative voltages and currents allows H bridges to source and sink power, essential for bidirectional converters and servo systems.

• Field Oriented Control: Three-phase inverters, generalizations of the H bridge, use Clarke and Park transforms to control torque and flux in permanent magnet synchronous motors. Field-oriented control achieves smooth torque, high efficiency and low acoustic noise.

• Multilevel Topologies: Cascading H-bridges creates higher levels and synthesizes stepped waveforms. Multilevel converters deliver lower harmonic distortion and enable operation at kilovolt levels using lower-rated devices.

These techniques require more complex control algorithms and careful design, but unlock higher performance and efficiency.

Metrics and Decision Criteria

Engineers need quantitative criteria to choose components and architectures:

• Efficiency: Aim for efficiencies above 95% for low-voltage drives and above 97% for advanced GaN systems. Every percentage point gained reduces heat and power consumption.

• Total Harmonic Distortion (THD): Lower THD implies smoother torque and less acoustic noise. Multilevel converters and high PWM frequencies reduce THD without bulky filters.

• Ripple Current: Excessive current or torque ripple can lead to vibration and wear. Select proper PWM frequency and filter components to minimize ripple.

• Cost per Watt: While wide bandgap devices cost more per ampere, they may lower total system cost by reducing passive component size and cooling requirements.

• Reliability: Mean time between failures depends on temperature, voltage stresses and cycle count. Conservative derating and thermal design improve reliability.

Selecting the right H-bridge design involves balancing efficiency, reliability, cost, and performance to ensure optimal results for both current needs and future scalability.

Future Directions and Predictions

Looking forward to 2025, and then 2026, several trends will shape H-bridge technology over the next decade:

• Proliferation of Wide Bandgap Devices: As GaN and SiC production scales up and costs fall, most new motor drives by 2028 may adopt wide bandgap switches. Efficiency gains will enable smaller, lighter and cooler systems.

• Integration and Miniaturization: More functions—microcontrollers, sensors, drivers—will integrate into single chips. By 2030, plug-and-play smart actuators may contain complete H-bridges with advanced control algorithms and communication stacks.

• Machine Learning Integration: Neural network-based controllers will adapt in real time, optimizing efficiency and predicting maintenance needs. Combined with digital twins, this will transform motor control into a data-driven discipline.

• Grid Interaction and Energy Storage: Electric vehicles and home energy systems will require bidirectional H-bridges to manage charging and discharging, conforming to standards like ISO 15118. Regulation will emphasize energy efficiency and recyclability.

Engineers should continuously update their skill set to leverage these advances and participate in shaping the future of motor control.

Conclusion

The H bridge remains a cornerstone of modern DC motor control, providing precise, efficient, and reliable bidirectional operation across diverse applications. By mastering its topology, switching states, and performance factors, engineers can design systems that achieve both high efficiency and long-term reliability. A structured approach—covering specification, device selection, gate drivers, sensing, simulation, and validation—ensures robustness and compliance with safety standards. When integrated with digital control platforms, H bridges enable advanced capabilities such as closed-loop speed control, communication, and self-protection. 

Modern simulation tools like LTspice 24 and QSPICE accelerate development while reducing design risks. With emerging technologies like wide-bandgap semiconductors, integrated driver ICs, and AI-assisted control, the full-bridge architecture is set to become even more capable. Applying the principles and best practices outlined here equips engineers to meet today’s demands and adapt seamlessly to tomorrow’s innovations.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is an H-bridge, and why is it useful?

A. H-bridge is a circuit using MOSFETs, BJTs, or PNP/NPN transistors that allows direct current to flow in either direction. This enables motor direction control, dynamic braking, and multiple operational modes.

2. How do I prevent shoot-through in my H-bridge design?

A. Shoot-through happens when high-side and low-side devices conduct together, shorting the supply. Use drivers with dead time, firmware interlocks, and breadboard testing with an oscilloscope to verify FET/BJT switching transitions and prevent short circuit damage.

3. Can I use an H-bridge to drive a brushless DC motor?

A. Yes, a brushless DC (BLDC) motor requires a three-phase inverter, which is essentially three H-bridges driving each phase. With appropriate communication and feedback, the same principles apply. Advanced control algorithms, such as Field-Oriented Control, achieve smooth torque and high efficiency.

4. What benefits do GaN and SiC bring to H-bridge applications?

A. GaN and SiC devices offer lower capacitance, lower resistance, and faster switching than silicon. They improve efficiency beyond 97%, reduce passive size, handle higher amps, and minimize amplifier noise in H-bridge motor driver systems.

5. Which simulation tools should I use for H-bridge design?

A. Use LTspice 24 for circuit-level analysis, QSPICE for mixed-signal and model generation, PLECS for thermal simulation, and Simulink/Simscape for system-level design, from direct current motor models to breadboard prototyping and high-power FET/diode validation.

6. How can I implement regenerative braking with an H-bridge?

A. Regenerative braking uses the H-bridge to turn the motor into a generator, returning energy to the power supply. Control algorithms manage current flow, voltage limits, and amp ratings for safe bidirectional energy transfer.

7. Are integrated H-bridge drivers better than discrete designs?

A. Integrated H-bridge motor drivers combine switches, driver circuits, and protections into one package. Discrete builds offer FET, BJT, or PNP flexibility, better for custom high-power designs or breadboard prototyping where precise component selection is required.

References

[1] Number Analytics. Mastering H Bridge in Mechatronics [Cited 2025 August 08]. Available at: Link

[2] Toshiba. Essential Electronics – The H-bridge Motor Controller, [Cited 2025 August 08] Available at: Link

[3] NXP Semiconductors. H Bridge Motor Drivers Address Automotive Emissions and ADAS Challenges [Cited 2025 August 08] Available at: Link

[4] Number Analytics. Mastering H Bridge in Mechatronics [Cited 2025 August 08] Available at: Link

[5] Power Electronics News. GaN vs SiC: APEC 2025 [Cited 2025 August 08] Available at: Link