Knowing the distance between two short-range transceivers is useful for many applications. Examples include proximity measurement for making sure people maintain a set distance apart for safety reasons, indoor navigation, and tracking items in a warehouse.There are several techniques for measuring distance from straightforward received signal strength indicator (RSSI) and time-of-flight (ToF), through more complex phase-based measurements to advanced techniques such as Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) and estimation of multipath channel impulse response from frequency spectrum measurements. Each trades off some combination of accuracy, resolution, calculation time, processing resource, and energy.It&#39;s possible to try out each of these techniques to find out which is best for your applications using the Nordic Distance Toolbox (NDT). NDT is a proprietary technology that&rsquo;s an easy-to-use development tool for measuring the distance between two Nordic short-range radios. It is included in Nordic&rsquo;s <a href="https://www.nordicsemi.com/Products/Development-software/nRF-Connect-SDK?utm_campaign=2021%20wevolver" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">nRF Connect SDK</a>, the company&rsquo;s scalable and unified software development kit. Let&rsquo;s take a closer look at these various distance measuring techniques.<h2>Using signal intensity to estimate distance</h2>While not able to focus a signal nor determine the direction from which it has come, a short-range radio such as a Bluetooth LE transceiver with a single antenna can measure signal strength, the frequency of the incoming signal, its phase, and its time of arrival. This information is useful for estimating the distance to the transmitter.When transmitting, the short-range radio broadcasts a 2.402 to 2.480 GHz signal that forms a sphere expanding at the speed of light. As the sphere propagates, the intensity (power per unit area) of the signal in a vacuum and without obstructions drops off according to the formula 1/r2 (where &ldquo;r&rdquo; is the radius of the sphere). With knowledge of the original transmission power and incoming signal strength, the receiver can therefore work out approximately how far it is from the transmitter.But a vacuum without obstructions is not the usual operating environment for a short-range radio. In typical use, for example, in a house or an office, the intensity drop will be greater. To compensate and improve distance measurement accuracy, engineers instead use the formula 1/rn where &ldquo;n&rdquo; is the &ldquo;path loss factor&rdquo;. For example, in a home with walls made of wood, n is around 4.5.RSSI is a cheap and inexpensive way to estimate the distance between two transceivers. The downside is that the path loss factor introduces errors even if it has been carefully assessed for an anticipated operating scenario. Nordic conducted some tests in an office environment that compared the distance between two short-range radios measured very precisely using LIDAR with those obtained from RSSI measurements. RSSI proved precise up to a few meters, but beyond that distance estimates became increasingly inaccurate. When people were moving through the measurement area, RSSI precision deteriorated markedly, and the useable range dropped to half a meter.<h2>Time-of-Flight and phase measurements</h2>A second technique that brings greater precision to distance measurement is ToF. The technique measures the time it takes for a signal to travel from the transmitter to the receiver and back, and then calculates the distance based on the speed of light. (ToF (seconds)/2 x c (meters per second) = distance to object (meters).) There is a small correction, because the receiving radio will require a short but finite time to switch from receive to transmit and &ldquo;reflect&rdquo; the signal back. However, such a correction is easily included in the distance calculation.A third technique that also offers greater accuracy than RSSI is phase measurement. It&rsquo;s a technique that has been used for many years in radar installations. The math is complex, but in essence the measurement relies on different radio frequencies having different wavelengths. A 2.4 GHz signal, for example, has a wavelength of 12.5 cm, whereas a 2.48 GHz signal has a slightly shorter wavelength of 12.1 cm.Over two meters, for example, a 2.4 GHz signal will oscillate exactly (2/0.125) 16 times so its phase at the receiver will be the same as when it left the transmitter. However, a 2.48 GHz signal will oscillate (2/0.121) 16.53 times. That extra 0.53 of a cycle will mean that the received signal is (2&pi; x 0.53) 1.06&pi; out of phase compared with the transmitted signal.For a given distance, phase measurements across a range of frequencies results in a linear phase variation with a measurable gradient. Changing the distance alters the gradient of the phase variation with a steeper gradient representing a greater range. With knowledge of the gradient change for a set of reference distances, in a practical situation, it is relatively simple to correlate a measured gradient to the actual distance between the two transmitters. &nbsp; &nbsp;Nordic&rsquo;s tests using the LIDAR comparison showed that both ToF and phase measurement offer reasonable accuracy and are not affected by the signal attenuation that plagues RSSI measurements. For shorter distances (up to ten meters), phase measurement offers greater precision. Over long distances (up to several hundred meters), phase measurement tends to become less precise and ToF is a better way to measure the distance between the radios. Note that both the ToF and phase change techniques require a two-way connection between transmitter and receiver, unlike RSSI.<h2>Greater precision but increased complexity</h2>If the precision offered by ToF or phase measurement is still not adequate for an application, there are two more methods supported by Nordic Distance Toolbox that offer even greater accuracy. One uses Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) techniques and the other uses an estimation of multipath channel impulse response from frequency spectrum measurements.These techniques are complex, and both rely on sophisticated analysis of the transmitted and received signals. However, the result is a precise and repeatable measurement of the distance between the short range radios. The trade-off with both techniques is that they demand a high level of computing resources and long processing time that consumes energy and hence impacts battery life.Nordic&#39;s tests revealed that IFFT produces a good correlation to the actual distance measured by LIDAR and is more accurate than RSSI, ToF and phase measurement, although some outlier filtering is likely to be required to get the best results. The estimation of multipath channel impulse response measurement is even better than IFFT, producing high precision results; but it also requires outlier filtering and features longer processing times than the other techniques. However, if the highest precision distance measurement is needed for the application, then the energy trade-off could be worth it.<h2>Nordic Distance Toolbox does all the work</h2>The Nordic Distance Toolbox included with Nordic&rsquo;s nRF Connect SDK is useful for testing various distance measurement techniques with Nordic short-range radio SoCs and includes a quality indicator to provide a degree of confidence in how accurate the measurement data is likely to be. Distance is computed based on all intensity, frequency, and phase information available to the transceiver and all calculations are completed inside the toolbox.Nordic Distance Toolbox currently offers experimental support for <a href="https://www.nordicsemi.com/Products/nRF52833?utm_campaign=2021%20wevolver" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">nRF52833</a>, <a href="https://www.nordicsemi.com/Products/nRF52840?utm_campaign=2021%20wevolver" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">nRF52840</a>, and <a href="https://www.nordicsemi.com/Products/nRF5340?utm_campaign=2021%20wevolver" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">nRF5340</a> and includes measurement support for: RSSI; ToF; phase slope estimation; IFFT; and estimation of multipath channel impulse response from frequency spectrum measurements.<hr id="isPasted">This article was first published on Nordic&#39;s <a href="https://blog.nordicsemi.com/getconnected" target="_blank" rel="nofollow"></a><a href="https://blog.nordicsemi.com/getconnected?utm_campaign=2021%20wevolver" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">Get Connected Blog</a>. &nbsp;

Knowing the distance between two short-range transceivers is useful for many applications. Examples include proximity measurement for making sure people maintain a set distance apart for safety reasons, indoor navigation, and tracking items in a warehouse.

Using the Nordic Distance Toolbox to measure the distance between short-range radios

<section data-element_type="section" data-id="61a53386" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" data-particle_enable="false" id="isPasted"><div data-element_type="column" data-id="5f57ec7b"><div data-element_type="widget" data-id="594525e0" data-widget_type="text-editor.default">You&rsquo;ve identified that global IoT SIM cards with a self-service console and developer tools (APIs, Integrations, Docs) is the right wireless technology to <a data-wpel-link="internal" href="https://monogoto.io/iot-connectivity/iot-connectivity-for-fleet-management/" target="_blank">track your fleet,</a> assets and containers, or smart meters. But, when you start digging into the cellular connectivity world, it&rsquo;s easy to get lost in the plethora of codes, identity numbers, acronyms, and what each is used for. For instance, what is an ICCID number? This is likely to be one of the first ID numbers you encounter on your journey.&nbsp;In this article, we demystify and explain the codes, numbers and acronyms for you so you can focus on making your IoT project a success.&nbsp;<hr>It&rsquo;s worth pointing out that all these cellular identifiers are necessary: think of all the moving parts that need to work in sync to get the <a data-wpel-link="external" href="https://eng.uber.com/improving-transportation-artificial-intelligence/" rel="external noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">taxi to your front door</a> at the right time, or for you to deliver a real-time, accurate report of valuable assets as they move across the planet.The humble SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) card does a lot of heavy lifting as the quarterback of all this activity. Each SIM card contains the identification code for the various entities it will need to engage with:<ul><li>Cellular modem</li><li>Cellular network</li><li>Connectivity service&nbsp;</li></ul></div></div></section><section data-element_type="section" data-id="417ae7a" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" data-particle_enable="false"><div data-element_type="column" data-id="598d776"><div data-element_type="widget" data-id="17ac97d" data-widget_type="text-editor.default">When you are planning an IoT project using cellular connectivity, you will need to stitch together these various entities so that the correct information is conveyed at the right time and in the right way. To get you started, here is an IoT SIM card dictionary that explains the meaning, location and purpose of the building blocks of cellular IoT connectivity.&nbsp;ICCID &ndash; Integrated Circuit Card ID&nbsp;<ul><li>This is a globally unique identification number for the SIM card itself</li><li>19 or 20 digits printed on the back of the SIM card</li></ul>IMSI &ndash; International Mobile Subscriber Identity<ul><li>This identifies the mobile station, home wireless network and the home country of the wireless network. Mobile operators use the IMSI to identify which services are allocated to the SIM card&rsquo;s data plan</li><li>Up to 15 digits stored in the SIM card itself. It cannot be moved or changed.</li></ul>IMEI &ndash; International Mobile Equipment Identity<ul><li>This is a unique number allocated to the specific device, think of it as a cellular device&rsquo;s fingerprint. It is used to identify or track the device via a global IMEI database if the device is stolen or compromised.</li><li>15 digits usually printed on the device&rsquo;s battery component&nbsp;</li></ul></div></div></section><section data-element_type="section" data-id="c1f6a1f" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" data-particle_enable="false"><div data-element_type="column" data-id="e6193a4"><div data-element_type="widget" data-id="31b7fb7" data-widget_type="image.default"><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjU4NzM3NDQ2ODMzLVNJTXMuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"></div></div></section><section data-element_type="section" data-id="1effa79" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" data-particle_enable="false"><div data-element_type="column" data-id="fef414e"><div data-element_type="widget" data-id="e0c6ce9" data-widget_type="text-editor.default">eUICCID &ndash; Embedded Universal Integrated Circuit Card ID<ul><li>This is an identification number used to identify physical SIM or eSIM</li><li>In case if physical eSIM was provided by an operator, then this number can be found printed on the eSIM chip, else it can be seen in device settings.</li></ul>MSISDN &ndash; Mobile Station ISDN Number&nbsp;<ul><li>This is the full phone number, including the country code, of a SIM card. It&rsquo;s used to complete voice calls and route SMS messages.&nbsp;</li><li>Maximum length is 15 digits. The minimum number of digits varies and depends on the issuing country&rsquo;s regulations. To see this number you may need to check your device settings or contact your SIM provider.</li></ul>OPc &ndash; Operator code<ul><li>This is a code generated from OP (operator code) and Ki key using an algorithm to generate a code unique for each SIM. This provides great security, since in case OPc is obtained by a 3rd party, then only one SIM can be spoofed, not all.</li><li>Known only to the network carrier who provides SIM cards to the customers.</li></ul>Ki key&nbsp;<ul><li>A unique Ki key is used to authenticate the SIM on a GSM mobile network.</li><li>The 128-bit cryptographic code is saved on the SIM and stored in the AuC (authentication center) database on the carrier&rsquo;s network. This code is not accessible to end users and only a few people from the carrier&rsquo;s network can access it.</li></ul>ADM key &ndash; Administrative key<ul><li>ADM key is needed if you want to change information/settings in the SIM card that by default is set to read-only or unreadable.&nbsp;</li><li>Each sim card has different keys and they are known only to the network carrier who provides SIM cards to the customers, so only the owner can change the information inside the sim.</li></ul>While this looks like a lot at first, there is no doubt that global IoT SIM cards with self-service console and developer tools for cellular connectivity are the right wireless technology for your IoT project. Let Monogoto simplify it all with a reduced cellular learning curve that allows you to deploy faster.&nbsp;With <a href="https://monogoto.io/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Monogoto</a>&rsquo;s plug-and-play IoT SIM cards you&rsquo;ll be up and running fast with immediate global connectivity and maximum network resiliency in 180 countries on 550+ mobile networks.<hr>Continue the discussion on our Community Forum&nbsp;-&nbsp;<a href="https://forum.monogoto.io/t/what-is-an-iccid-number-the-complete-iot-sim-card-dictionary/169" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">JOIN</a><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjU4NzM3Njc0MzM3LWZvcnVtLmpwZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="forum.monogoto.io">Join the discussion on forum.monogoto.io</div></div></section>

When you start digging into the cellular connectivity world, it’s easy to get lost in the plethora of codes, identity numbers, acronyms, and what each is used for. For instance, what is an ICCID number? This is likely to be one of the first ID numbers you encounter on your journey.

What is an ICCID number? The complete IoT SIM card dictionary

This is the sixth and the final article in a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/next-gen-wi-fi-applications-and-solutions" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">6-part series</a>&nbsp;featuring articles on Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions. The series focuses on the improvements Wi-Fi 6/6E and its applications bring to enhance the performance of the next-gen wireless networking devices. This series is sponsored by Mouser Electronics. Through the sponsorship, Mouser Electronics shares its passion for technologies that enable smarter and connected applications.As discussed in the previous articles of our Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions Series, improving wireless communication performance is no longer limited to just pushing the limits of raw data transfer rates. To offer an improved user experience, it is necessary to mitigate interference and optimize the use of the available frequency spectrum in the best possible way.The sixth and the final article of the ongoing series examines the interference problem in-depth and explains how Bulk Acoustic Wave (BAW) technology offers a promising solution to maximize spectrum utilization by high-precision filtering to recover signals with greater noise immunity.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Solving the Interference Problem</h2>Cellular networks, Wi-Fi, ZigBee&reg;, Bluetooth&reg;, and several other protocols all share a common Radio Frequency (RF) space. They use different modulation schemes, channel widths, channel spacings, and frequency-hopping algorithms.&nbsp;As next-generation services and devices emerge, more frequencies, bandwidth, coexistence, and interference immunity is needed. This means claiming more of the spectrum that was lost using older technologies.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUzMjQxMTE3NzgzLTE2NTMyNDExMTc3ODMucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="interferences-in-wifi">Fig. 1: Wi-Fi devices suffer from internal as well as external interference all the time. Source: Mouser-QorvoSpectrum utilization is the key, and as the move from 3G to 4G increased the number of bands from 5 to 40, recovering clean signals from a world of muddying interference is getting tougher.&nbsp;<iframe id="641adb382efaf40008a1771d" width="250" class="specs-iframe" height="420" src="https://wevolver.com/iframe/specs/digilent-b200-ettus-usrp-cognitive-radio?iframe=true" frameborder="0" scrolling="true" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe>In other words, for reaching deep into a turbulent pool of RF, more precision filtering is needed to recover stronger and more reliable signals with improved noise immunity. And with handheld devices that feature multiprotocol transceivers that can operate simultaneously, the need for 40 filters is not uncommon. Even within a home setting, Wi-Fi routers suffer, and end-point devices fall victim here as well.<h2 dir="ltr">Improving Performance Through Precision Filtering</h2>Key to improving performance are filters, but older space-eating Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) filter technologies are reaching a brick wall as far as being effective solutions to the doubling of RF bands is concerned.&nbsp;Supplanting SAW filters is BAW technology. Both are forms of electromechanical resonators. The structure of the BAW resonator consists of a thin layer of a piezoelectric material sandwiched between two electrodes. When an electric field is applied across the electrodes, the piezoelectric crystal excites an acoustic wave. As the wave propagates through the surface, cavities are formed between the electrodes. [1]This technology can handle higher power levels than SAW devices. Electric current distributes more freely, and there are no narrow channels of fingers prone to electromigration damage as in SAW filters. Bulk filters have been used to partition the bands and are proving a more reliable bandwidth within the band. BAW technology extends the edges of the filters while maintaining sharp band edges.&nbsp;BAW filters, which can be made using crystal quartz, can be 1000 times smaller than ceramic technologies while retaining low cost at high-volume manufacturing. As this technology takes over older SAW solutions, new and tightly packed filters can allow smaller, more clever use of specific bands and power levels to set up a true next-generation band-sharing technique.&nbsp;To sum it all up, here is a list of key advantages BAW filters offer:<ul><li dir="ltr">Sharp band edges:&nbsp;Systems using BAW filters showcase a high rejection in the frequencies outside of the band edges. This helps in reducing the leakage of signal outside the used frequencies.</li><li dir="ltr">Smaller size: Whole BAW filter can be fabricated on a single IC as opposed to some crystal oscillators that require a dedicated footprint and a triggering Resistor-Capacitor (RC) circuit. This feature helps in the size reduction of the PCB used in the end product.</li><li dir="ltr">Temperature stability: Though the products are designed to work at 25 &deg;C, in practical applications, the temperatures can go up to 60-80 &deg;C due to high ambient temperatures and heat emitted by other components. BAW filters are more resilient to these extremities as compared to SAW filters.</li></ul>All the observations point to a single direction, and that is towards a system with less interference than ever before.<h2 dir="ltr">New Ways of Partitioning and Preferential Allocation of Bands</h2>WiFi 6E&rsquo;s expansion in the 6 GHz band grants more number of non-overlapping channels for connected devices to communicate over. The jump from 5 GHz to 6 GHz band is a pretty significant upgrade than it may appear at first.<div align="left" dir="ltr"><table><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"> </td><td style="text-align: center;">2.4 GHz</td><td style="text-align: center;">5 GHz</td><td style="text-align: center;">6 GHz</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;">20 MHz</td><td style="text-align: center;">3 channels</td><td style="text-align: center;">25&nbsp;channels</td><td style="text-align: center;">60&nbsp;channels</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;">40 MHz</td><td style="text-align: center;">1&nbsp;channel</td><td style="text-align: center;">12&nbsp;channels</td><td style="text-align: center;">29&nbsp;channels</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;">80 MHz</td><td style="text-align: center;">N.A.</td><td style="text-align: center;">6&nbsp;channels</td><td style="text-align: center;">14&nbsp;channels</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;">160 MHz</td><td style="text-align: center;">N.A.</td><td style="text-align: center;">2&nbsp;channels</td><td style="text-align: center;">7 channels</td></tr></tbody></table></div>Table 1: Number of non-overlapping channels in Wi-FiWith just a GHz increase in the frequency, the latest WiFi standard increases the number of non-overlapping channels by more double compared to the 5 GHz band. One of the reasons for such a large increase in the number of channels is the unavailability of bands reserved for RADARs in the sub-5 GHz frequencies, which is not a concern in the 5-6 GHz frequencies.To make use of all the available channels to the fullest and transition between interfering bands, engineers can make use of BAW filters in their designs. These filters help to avoid interference from band to band and are large enablers of capacity increase. For customers, this translates to reduced interference and an increase in the effective range of the devices. Multiple users can communicate at the same time with the router.&nbsp;With improved filters exhibiting higher power levels, taking up less space, device-specific and even protocol-specific partitioning of the airwaves can take place. Additionally, design engineers can classify power levels based on criticality, throughput, or other importance so that channel assignments for noncritical transmissions avoid these channels.&nbsp;For example, a high-speed streaming multimedia link has higher bandwidth needs than SMS texting services. An interruption in the streaming could be a turnoff if insufficient bandwidth or buffering is used. On the other hand, seconds of delay in SMS services would not even be noticed.&nbsp;By the same token, newly emerging medical devices connected to the Internet of Things could use specific subsets of the newly evolved bandwidth to assure the most reliability while monitoring a patient or transferring error-free vitals. Even assigned fallback channels can be used to increase reliability.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">High-performance BAW filters for cutting edge RF applications by Qorvo</h2>As RF technology achieves new heights with each passing generation of Wi-Fi, cellular, and several other wireless communication networks, a precise filter is required to support wideband and high-frequency designs. Qorvo&rsquo;s innovations in BAW technology are vital components in advanced filtering solutions for mobile products, radars, and other wireless communication technologies.&nbsp;Qorvo BAW filters range from 1.5 GHz to 9 GHz, encompassing the consumer wireless bands as well as carrier services. Parts such as the <a href="https://www.mouser.com/new/qorvo/qorvo-qpq1909-baw-filter/" target="_blank">QPQ1909SR</a> perform signal-conditioning filtration within the 2402MHz to 2494 MHz bands for Wi-Fi bandage (Figure 1). Terminating into 50 Ω, the low 0.8 dB to 1.2 dB insertion loss is essential for maintaining signal integrity. <img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUzMjQxOTkyNjMzLUFydGljbGUgNCAoMSkuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt=" Qorvo QPQ1909 Wi-Fi">Fig. 2: Qorvo QPQ1909 Wi-Fi&reg; edgeBoost&trade; BAW Filter: Packing multiple high-performance RF front-end filters in smaller space while improving performance lets hexaplexers such as this multiband filter provide superior performance in smaller designs. Source: Mouser/QorvoBAW designs use the high-performance high-power edge boost Wi-Fi technology for channels 1 through 14. This means end-users will see a better quality of service as well as higher regulatory power allowances (to +30 dBm averaged input power). Note how the higher performance channels in conjunction with a priority scheme can ensure more reliable data communications to more critical applications.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUzMjQxOTc0NzIwLUFydGljbGUgNC5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="Qorvo QPQ1909EVB01 Active Filter Development Tools Evaluation Board">Fig. 3 Qorvo QPQ1909EVB01 Active Filter Development Tools Evaluation Board. For those willing to get started with BAW designs, resources like QPQ1909EVB01 Active Filter Development Tools Evaluation Board can be a perfect choice. Source: Mouser/QorvoBAW filters are not limited to better Wi-Fi solutions but are also useful for GPS, DiPlexer, Duplexers, and other assorted protocol-specific access points, routers, gateways, and wearables. If you are going to filter, it is a better idea to do it in bulk.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h2>With the introduction of next-generation services and devices, more frequencies, bandwidth, coexistence, and interference immunity are required. As a result, design engineers must maximize spectrum utilization. BAW technology and filters enable the partitioning of frequency bands for more precision filtering to capture stronger and more reliable signals with enhanced noise immunity.To read more about BAW filters and other technologies enabling better Wi-Fi solutions, do check out: <a href="https://www.mouser.com/news/qorvo-ebook/mobile/index.html" target="_blank">Future-Proofing Wi-Fi</a> by Mouser and Qorvo.This article was initially published by Mouser and Qorvo in an <a href="https://www.mouser.com/news/qorvo-wifi6-app-ebook/mobile/index.html" target="_blank">e-magazine</a>. It has been substantially edited by the Wevolver team and Electrical Engineer <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/ravi.rao" target="_blank">Ravi Y Rao</a>. It&#39;s the sixth and the final article from the Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions Series.<ul><li dir="ltr" id="isPasted">The introductory article <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/next-gen-wi-fi-applications-and-solutions" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">provided an overview of wireless communication and the subsequent articles of the series.&nbsp;</a></li><li dir="ltr">The first article&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-evolution-of-wi-fi-networks-from-ieee-80211-to-wi-fi-6e" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">explored the origins and the evolution of WiFi to showcase how the wireless local area networking standard improved over time.</a></li><li dir="ltr">The second article was&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-design-philosophy-behind-wi-fi-6e-recent-trends-in-wireless-networking/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">focused on recent trends and the design philosophy behind WiFi 6/6E.</a>&nbsp;The article explains why even with a marginal improvement in raw data rates, WiFi 6/6E is the biggest upgrade yet.</li><li dir="ltr">The third article dives into the technicalities of WiFi 6/6E.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/six-technologies-enabling-wi-fi-6e/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">It explains the 6 enabling technologies of WiFi 6/6E including OFDMA, BSS Coloring, TWT, Beamforming, 8X8 MU-MIMO, and 1024-QAM.</a></li><li dir="ltr">The fourth article is a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/future-of-wireless-communication-wi-fi-6e-or-5g/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">comparison between WiFi and 5G based on some of the key performance parameters.&nbsp;</a>It tries to form a perspective regarding which technology is suitable for different use cases.</li><li>The fifth article features a discussion on where the wireless communication industry is headed to. <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-next-generation-of-wi-fi-in-conversation-with-cees-links/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Concepts like mesh WiFi networks are explored with excerpts from an interview with Cees Links, General Manager of the Low Power Wireless Business Unit in Qorvo and one of the leading pioneers of WiFi.&nbsp;</a></li><li>The final article introduces the readers to the <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/baw-filters-for-performance-improvements-in-wi-fi-5g-and-rf-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">concept, benefits, and applications of BAW filters in WiFi, 5G, and other RF communication systems designs.</a></li></ul><h2 dir="ltr">About the sponsor: Mouser Electronics</h2><a href="https://eu.mouser.com/" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a> is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 1,100 manufacturer brands. They specialize in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUzMjQxMTE2NzQ1LTE2NTMyNDExMTY3NDUucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="mouser-electronics-logo"><h2 dir="ltr">References</h2>[1] Advanced BAW Filter Technology and Its Impact on 5G, Qorvo, [Online], Available from: <a href="https://www.qorvo.com/resources/d/qorvo-advanced-baw-filter-technology-impact-on-5g-white-paper" target="_blank">https://www.qorvo.com/resources/d/qorvo-advanced-baw-filter-technology-impact-on-5g-white-paper</a>

Article #6 of Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions Series: Bulk Acoustic Wave (BAW) filters are high-performance chips that help in mitigating interference and reducing the physical size of 5G, Wi-Fi, and other RF communication system designs.

BAW filters for Performance Improvements in Wi-Fi, 5G, and RF Applications

Article #4 of Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions Series: Wi-Fi and cellular networks have both coexisted in the consumer space for decades. A comparison between the most common Radio Frequency (RF) communication technologies reveals where exactly each of them fits in.

Future of Wireless communication: Wi-Fi 6E or 5G?

This is the third article in a 6-part&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/next-gen-wi-fi-applications-and-solutions" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">series</a>&nbsp;featuring articles on Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions. The series focuses on the improvements Wi-Fi 6/6E and its applications bring to enhance the performance of the next-gen wireless networking devices. This series is sponsored by Mouser Electronics. Through the sponsorship, Mouser Electronics shares its passion for technologies that enable smarter and connected applications.We&rsquo;ve all experienced lousy Wi-Fi connectivity at public places like airports, shopping malls, restaurants, theaters, and more. Previous Wi-Fi generations couldn&rsquo;t handle interference created in crowded places well, which is why users experienced slowdowns.This article covers Wi-Fi 6/6E technologies to explain how it successfully manages to get a large number of users connected together. By providing a high-level overview of the technical aspects, we explain why Wi-Fi would never be the same again.<h2 dir="ltr">Wi-Fi 6 features and technologies</h2>As discussed in the <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-evolution-of-wi-fi-networks-from-ieee-80211-to-wi-fi-6e" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">first</a> and the <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-design-philosophy-behind-wi-fi-6e-recent-trends-in-wireless-networking/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">second</a> article of our ongoing series on Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions, research in wireless communication is now focused more on making the most out of available data rates instead of trying to push its theoretical limits.Along with increased performance expectations, Wi-Fi systems are now expected to cater to a higher density of devices with a very diverse set of applications. In this section, we share some technologies enabling the latest generation of Wi-Fi to deal with modern challenges.<h3 dir="ltr">Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA)</h3>OFDMA is a successor to Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM), a widely used modulation scheme in wireless digital communication for encoding data on multiple carrier frequencies. In the previous Wi-Fi generations, OFDM was used along with statistical time-division multiplexing.&nbsp;Due to the way the modulation worked, the Wi-Fi Access Points (APs) could talk to only one user at a time. During communication, the entire frequency band is occupied but not utilized, causing a sheer wastage of energy and time. While AP tries to communicate with user devices, user devices are also trying to communicate with the AP, and as the number of devices (new Internet of Things gadgets) goes up, things get slowed down even further.OFDMA solves these problems by allowing simultaneous transmission of digital data to multiple users. The frequency still remains the same, but instead of allocating the entire band to a single user, the channel is now split into multiple lanes, and resources are allocated based on the users&rsquo; individual requirements.&nbsp;This allows for more efficient multi-user communication, which is visible in densely connected locations like conference rooms, offices, malls, and even homes with multiple IoT devices. The approach of allocating a small lane for each connected device to communicate on can also improve the functioning of devices that require real-time communication like the ones used in hospitals.<h3 dir="ltr">Basic Service Set (BSS) Coloring</h3>Wi-Fi follows a BSS topology that allows multiple wireless devices to communicate with each other through a common AP that can be identified with a Basic Service Set Identifier (BSSID) and a Service Set Identifier (SSID). The devices connected to a network do not communicate directly with each other but use AP as a means to do so. When multiple Wi-Fi APs are available in a region, congestion occurs, which is a major cause of the slowdown.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUyOTM5Njg0MDk3LTE2NTI5Mzk2ODQwOTcucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="bss-coloring-diagram">Fig. 1: Multiple APs can work over the same channel and still not interfere with BSS ColoringWi-Fi 6 brings BSS coloring to use the available spectrum efficiently. Frequencies are marked with a specific code (called color) in the Physical layer (PHY) header, passed between the AP and the device. This prevents overlapping BSS resulting in an overall improvement in the network&#39;s performance.<h3 dir="ltr">Target wake Time (TWT)</h3>Functionally, most IoT devices do not require constant data connectivity. However, earlier generations of Wi-Fi had no system in place to manage the schedules of initiating a data transfer and hence kept blasting Wi-Fi radio signals all the time. This approach not only increased interference but was highly inefficient. In the case of tiny IoT devices running on a portable power supply, saving each and every bit of power is crucial.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUyOTM5NjgzNTU2LTE2NTI5Mzk2ODM1NTYucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="target-wake-time-wifi-6-6e-scheduling">Fig. 2: Communication scheduling in Wi-Fi 6 system. Source: Mouser-Qorvo-NI.comTWT is a feature introduced with Wi-Fi 6 that enables the device and AP to figure out a schedule about when they need to wake up and communicate with each other. Consider, for example, an IoT device that senses ambient temperature and reports it via Wi-Fi. It need not always be connected with the network. Instead, the device and AP can communicate at regular intervals and decide to go to sleep when no connectivity is required. This improves the battery life of both the device and the AP, also resulting in energy savings in networks with a large number of devices without any change in the battery technology.<h3 dir="ltr">Beamforming</h3>Beamforming is a Radio Frequency (RF) management technique that directs signals toward specific user devices instead of spreading them all around. It is not entirely new to Wi-Fi as the technology existed before Wi-Fi 6. However, its efficacy has been dramatically improved lately.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUyOTQwMDEzNjUwLWV5SmlkV05yWlhRaU9pSjNaWFp2YkhabGNpMXdjbTlxWldOMExXbHRZV2RsY3lJc0ltdGxlU0k2SW1aeWIyRnNZUzh4TmpVeU9UTTVOamd6TkRneUxURTJOVEk1TXprMk9ETTBPREl1Y0c1bklpd2laV1JwZEhNaU9uc2ljbVZ6YVhwbElqcDdJbmRwWkhSb0lqbzVOVEFzSW1acGRDSTZJbU52ZG1WeUluMTlmUT09LmpwZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="beam-forming-diagram">Fig. 3: Forming a beam of Wi-Fi signals for range extensionThe technique is implemented by putting a bunch of antennas in a single AP at different physical positions. Depending on the performance, the best configuration is determined by an onboard controller. The advantage of beamforming appears as extended range and increased data transfer speeds. The feature can make a considerable difference if the client device is far from the AP.<h3 dir="ltr">8X8 Multi-User Multiple Input Multiple Output (MU-MIMO)</h3>MU-MIMO doesn&rsquo;t directly affect data transfer rates but offers a way to reduce interference by allowing multiple users to connect to the AP simultaneously. The previous generation of Wi-Fi (IEEE 801.11ac) supported MU-MIMO, but only in the 5 GHz band, had only 4 simultaneous streams, and only affected downloads.Wi-Fi 6 overcomes the drawbacks of the previous generation by adding 2.4 GHz support for MU-MIMO along with the 5 GHz band. The new Wi-Fi standard supports 8 or more simultaneous streams and improves both downloads and uploads.W-Fi 6E takes a step further by expanding its operating frequency to the 6 GHz band. This move comes right after the Federal Communications Commission allowed unlicensed use of 6 GHz in 2020.<h3 dir="ltr">1024 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)</h3>QAM is essentially an amplitude, and phase modulation scheme used when converting the digital data into analog RF signals. By increasing the depth of the QAM, it is possible to pack more data efficiently within the same frequency band. [1]1024 QAM used in Wi-Fi 6 is a step up from 256 QAM that IEEE 802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5) uses. It now packs 4 times more data during transmission, which directly increases the overall throughput (data rates). Making use of a more complex modulation scheme causes a dip in noise immunity, but the other Wi-Fi 6/6E features manage to fairly compensate for it to take the collective performance of the whole system to the next level.<h2 dir="ltr">Key elements of Wi-Fi 6/6E solutions by Qorvo</h2>Qorvo manufactures next-generation RF smarts and solutions to connect people, places, and things faster, further, and more reliably. Solutions developed by Qorvo are all around &ndash; making a better, more connected world possible. Check out the complete range of products, videos, e-books, and other resources by Qorvo on <a href="https://www.mouser.com/manufacturer/qorvo/" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a>.<h2 dir="ltr"><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUyOTM5Njg0MTgyLTE2NTI5Mzk2ODQxODEucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="elements-of-Wi-Fi-6-6e-rf-solutions">Key elements of Wi-Fi 6 solutions by Qorvo. Source: Mouser-Qorvo</h2><h2 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h2>The performance improvements brought in by the Wi-Fi 6/6E can be attributed to the improvements in modulation schemes, spatial streams, channel bonding, and airtime efficiency. The improved wireless local area networking technology has the potential to transform personal and high-density wireless deployments completely.This article was initially published by Mouser and Qorvo in an <a href="https://www.mouser.com/news/qorvo-wifi6-app-ebook/mobile/index.html" target="_blank">e-magazine</a>. It has been substantially edited by the Wevolver team and Electrical Engineer <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/ravi.rao" target="_blank">Ravi Y Rao</a>. It&#39;s the third article from the Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions Series. Future articles will introduce readers to some more interesting applications of the technology in various industries.<ul id="isPasted"><li dir="ltr" id="isPasted">The introductory article <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/next-gen-wi-fi-applications-and-solutions" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">provided an overview of wireless communication and the subsequent articles of the series.&nbsp;</a></li><li dir="ltr">The first article&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-evolution-of-wi-fi-networks-from-ieee-80211-to-wi-fi-6e" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">explored the origins and the evolution of WiFi to showcase how the wireless local area networking standard improved over time.</a></li><li dir="ltr">The second article was&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-design-philosophy-behind-wi-fi-6e-recent-trends-in-wireless-networking/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">focused on recent trends and the design philosophy behind WiFi 6/6E.</a>&nbsp;The article explains why even with a marginal improvement in raw data rates, WiFi 6/6E is the biggest upgrade yet.</li><li dir="ltr">The third article dives into the technicalities of WiFi 6/6E.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/six-technologies-enabling-wi-fi-6e/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">It explains the 6 enabling technologies of WiFi 6/6E including OFDMA, BSS Coloring, TWT, Beamforming, 8X8 MU-MIMO, and 1024-QAM.</a></li><li dir="ltr">The fourth article is a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/future-of-wireless-communication-wi-fi-6e-or-5g/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">comparison between WiFi and 5G based on some of the key performance parameters.&nbsp;</a>It tries to form a perspective regarding which technology is suitable for different use cases.</li><li>The fifth article features a discussion on where the wireless communication industry is headed to. <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-next-generation-of-wi-fi-in-conversation-with-cees-links/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Concepts like mesh WiFi networks are explored with excerpts from an interview with Cees Links, General Manager of the Low Power Wireless Business Unit in Qorvo and one of the leading pioneers of WiFi.&nbsp;</a></li><li>The final article introduces the readers to the <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/baw-filters-for-performance-improvements-in-wi-fi-5g-and-rf-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">concept, benefits, and applications of BAW filters in WiFi, 5G, and other RF communication systems designs.</a></li></ul><h2 dir="ltr">About the sponsor: Mouser Electronics</h2><a href="https://eu.mouser.com/" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a> is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 1,100 manufacturer brands. They specialize in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.<h2 dir="ltr"><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUyOTM5NjgyOTE0LTE2NTI5Mzk2ODI5MTQucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="mouser-electronics-logo"></h2><h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">References</h2>[1] Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax): 5 Things to Know, Qorvo, [Online], Available from: <a href="https://www.qorvo.com/design-hub/blog/80211ax-5-things-to-know" target="_blank">https://www.qorvo.com/design-hub/blog/80211ax-5-things-to-know</a>

Article #3 of Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions Series: OFDMA, BSS Coloring, TWT, Beamforming, 8X8 MU-MIMO, and 1024-QAM are some key features of Wi-Fi 6/6E that set it apart from all the previous generations of the IEEE 802.11 family.

Six technologies enabling Wi-Fi 6E

This is the second article in a 6-part series featuring articles on Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions. The series focuses on the improvements Wi-Fi 6/6E and its applications bring to enhance the performance of the next-gen wireless networking devices. This series is sponsored by Mouser Electronics. Through the sponsorship, Mouser Electronics shares its passion for technologies that enable smarter and connected applications.Despite that nobody could keep track of the array of acronyms underlying Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11b, .11a/g, .11n, .11ac), each new version of the wireless communication technology was a clear step forward in raw data rate. In the past four generations, that rate went from 11 Mbps to 6.9 Gbps&ndash;an increase of more than 650 times.Now there is the imminent arrival of the latest standard, IEEE 802.11ax, also referred to as Wi-Fi 6/6E, with a maximum raw data rate of 9.6 Gbps, just 1.4 times more than the previous standard. But given its slow appearance and marginal raw data rate improvement, one might wonder if this is an indication that Wi-Fi is running out of steam.So in this article, we take a closer look at Wi-Fi 6/6E and try to analyze the key areas where the technology has improved over its predecessors. We explain how Wi-Fi 6 goes beyond theoretical raw data rates to offer improved performance in practical applications.<h2 dir="ltr">Real-world performance improvements over increased raw data rates</h2>Networking products and services are typically marketed with blazing fast theoretical data transfer rates. After all, the raw data rate is the one thing that serves as the most fundamental basis for measuring the performance of the technology for the masses. This comes as no surprise since Wi-Fi has always been about pure high-speed wireless data communication.Wi-Fi 6/6E changes the number game. Underneath the acronym, there is a real shift going on from raw data rate towards multi-channel capacity and improved spectral reuse. This means that the real-life throughput experience of Wi-Fi 6/6E may be an increase of as much as 4 times compared to its predecessor, Wi-Fi 5 (.11ac).&nbsp;On top of this, Wi-Fi 6/6E does away with the different network IDs for 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and additionally installed extenders, which is a major improvement in usability. Let&rsquo;s explore because this all has significant consequences for consumers, as well as for product builders.<h2 dir="ltr">Dealing with Interference</h2>Consumers are majorly concerned about just 2 things when it comes to Wi-Fi. The first is performance (data rate) and the second is range. In urban areas these days, consumers have grown accustomed to what is now a common scenario&ndash;turning on a laptop, for example, and having to weed through the many routers or access points that are visible when trying to find the right Wi-Fi network. Many of the routers use a limited number of overlapping channels, which means users are sharing those channels. Or to put it another way, there is interference on those channels.When two devices are talking through each other, over the same channel at the same moment, the messages get garbled, and both need to be sent again. It&rsquo;s no surprise, then, that the throughput in dense environments can collapse in continuous retransmissions, which is again, a form of interference.This interference is made worse by the fact that routers and access points have attempted to improve range via the highest output power possible. Anyone who has ever been to a crowded party can understand the consequences of this scenario. The more everyone speaks louder to be heard, the more the overall noise goes up and any real opportunity to communicate goes down. In a similar way, more output power just causes more interference.&nbsp;Even worse, the higher output power in some channels of the band causes signals to &ldquo;bleed&rdquo; into the neighboring channels, another form of interference causing the capacity of the band and the total Wi-Fi system to degrade.<h2 dir="ltr">Distributed Wi-Fi with multiple nodes</h2>The goal of the latest Wi-Fi standards is less about higher data rates, and more about the use of as many channels in the 2.4 GHz band, 5 GHz band, or the 6 GHz band (for Wi-Fi 6E) as possible, at the same moment and in the same space.Let&rsquo;s look at an example to understand why this is needed. Imagine a family living in a house with multiple rooms, running different applications at the same time. In the past, this meant that everyone was using the same channel to communicate with the central router in the closet, but with all the interference limitations discussed in the previous section.Wi-Fi 6/6E solves this issue with the help of multiple small-sized access points that are around the size of a matchbox. These access points are placed in every room of the house and run on different Wi-Fi channels. They are wirelessly connected over Wi-Fi to the central router in the closet.&nbsp;Now the appliances are on different channels and not interfering with each other. This is a true multi-device management system Wi-Fi always needed. The emphasis is now completely on capacity and efficient use of multiple channels at the same time without interfering with each other, thereby optimizing total indoor throughput.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUyOTM5MzYyNzQ0LTE2NTI5MzkzNjI3NDQucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" alt="wifi-6-6e-mesh-network-diagram" class="fr-fic fr-dii">Fig. 1: &nbsp;The goal of Wi-Fi 6/6E is full coverage of a home (or a building), and maximum performance in every room, which results in maximum overall capacity for everyone (at the system level).<h2 dir="ltr">Consequences for Product Suppliers</h2>Interestingly, now the output power to achieve range is no longer the most important criteria. Other things are becoming more important. In the first place, there is &ldquo;flat power&rdquo;. This means uniform output power across the band, taking care that all the channels in the band are at maximum strength. In many products, the channels in the middle of the bands are strong, side channels of the band have to use lower power, essentially creating capacity limitations.This also relates to a term called &ldquo;band edge performance&rdquo;. To maximize the overall system capacity, one would like to achieve maximum output power over all the channels in the 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz and 6 GHz (with 6 GHz being exclusive to WiFi 6E) bands, including the channels at the edges of the bands. But what is more typical is that the channels at the edges of the band have lower output power to meet radio emission requirements (i.e., to make no noise outside of the band). Many product suppliers squeeze the output power of the channels on the edge of the band to meet the emission requirements, and therefore severely limit the overall system capacity.<h2 dir="ltr">Consequence for Consumers</h2>Consumers do not like big and bulky devices with large antennas. Especially with distributed Wi-Fi routers in every room, consumers prefer smaller devices, preferably with no antennas sticking out at all.Unfortunately, there is a reason why routers today are so big. All the radio communication and power electronics components inside the router&rsquo;s case generate heat. Making a large housing and using heat sinks is the only way for the device to dissipate and get rid of the heat from the components inside.Case makers for these large networking devices are working hard to make their components more efficient so that they can radiate a lot of Wi-Fi signals with as little heat as possible. Again, the previous focus was on maximum raw data rate and the highest (allowed) output power, but the new goal is to use all the available channels with the highest efficiency, which leads to low power dissipation, and eventually to a reduction in the product size. This is what makes Wi-Fi 6/6E a new standard and a big step forward.<h2 dir="ltr">Performance-driven auto-configuration of Wi-Fi networks: switching between 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz/6 GHz</h2>There is one final question to note in this scenario. Assuming an access point in every room, and all the access points talking with the router in the closet over Wi-Fi, what frequency bands are preferred?The reason why this question arises is because a frequency of 2.4 GHz gives a better range than 5 GHz/6 GHz. So, a logical choice would be to use 2.4 GHz as the &ldquo;backbone&rdquo; and 5 GHz/6 GHz as the connection between the access point and the end device. There is a little issue, though.&nbsp;The backbone is supposed to aggregate the traffic, which means that it is supposed to have a higher data rate (performance) as well. In reality, the data rate at 5 GHz/6 GHz is higher than at 2.4 GHz, because more channels can be &ldquo;bundled together&rdquo; in the 5 GHz/6 GHz band. However, the range at 5 GHz/6 GHz is less, and therefore it is less suitable for serving as the backbone of the network.So, unsurprisingly, one can find products today that have different Wi-Fi system design philosophies. Some have 2.4 GHz as a backbone network, while others are using 5 GHz/6 GHz for the same purpose. The industry clearly is not unanimous about this just yet. And since indoor radio behavior can be fickle, there may not be an ultimate final solution&ndash;other than these distributed Wi-Fi systems configuring themselves based on optimizing the indoor environment, if the systems get smart enough.&nbsp;This configuration can even be made dynamic, based on the data consumption requirements in various parts of the distributed Wi-Fi system. This means it would reconfigure itself automatically as it &ldquo;understands&rdquo; the complete environment, including negotiating with the neighbors so everyone gets a fair share of the spectrum. For the Wi-Fi 6/6E users, management of the different channels or signing up to 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz/6 GHz networks all disappears.&nbsp;Wi-Fi 6/6E will show itself to the user as one network, with one password. Extended networks or different passwords will be a thing of the past, which makes getting or staying connected becomes very easy. The conclusion is clear&ndash;Wi-Fi 6/6E is not the end of Wi-Fi. It is the start of building even higher-performance systems supporting more users simultaneously and without interference.<h2 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h2>Each new Wi-Fi release brought in new improvements in terms of performance. But the technology created interference problems for itself as it got popular. Wi-Fi 6/6E has laid the clear path forwards for the next couple of Wi-Fi generations. There is a shift in the trend that puts more emphasis on optimizing the use of available technologies instead of continuously upgrading the hardware and packing more raw power.The next article in the Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions Series continues this discussion by diving a bit deeper into the technical aspects of Wi-Fi 6/6E.This article was initially published by Mouser and Qorvo in an <a href="https://www.mouser.com/news/qorvo-wifi6-app-ebook/mobile/index.html" target="_blank">e-magazine</a>. It has been substantially edited by the Wevolver team and Electrical Engineer <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/ravi.rao" target="_blank">Ravi Y Rao</a>. It&#39;s the second article from the Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions Series. Future articles will introduce readers to some more interesting applications of the technology in various industries.<ul><li dir="ltr" id="isPasted">The introductory article <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/next-gen-wi-fi-applications-and-solutions" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">provided an overview of wireless communication and the subsequent articles of the series.&nbsp;</a></li><li dir="ltr">The first article&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-evolution-of-wi-fi-networks-from-ieee-80211-to-wi-fi-6e" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">explored the origins and the evolution of WiFi to showcase how the wireless local area networking standard improved over time.</a></li><li dir="ltr">The second article was&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-design-philosophy-behind-wi-fi-6e-recent-trends-in-wireless-networking/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">focused on recent trends and the design philosophy behind WiFi 6/6E.</a>&nbsp;The article explains why even with a marginal improvement in raw data rates, WiFi 6/6E is the biggest upgrade yet.</li><li dir="ltr">The third article dives into the technicalities of WiFi 6/6E.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/six-technologies-enabling-wi-fi-6e/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">It explains the 6 enabling technologies of WiFi 6/6E including OFDMA, BSS Coloring, TWT, Beamforming, 8X8 MU-MIMO, and 1024-QAM.</a></li><li dir="ltr">The fourth article is a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/future-of-wireless-communication-wi-fi-6e-or-5g/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">comparison between WiFi and 5G based on some of the key performance parameters.&nbsp;</a>It tries to form a perspective regarding which technology is suitable for different use cases.</li><li>The fifth article features a discussion on where the wireless communication industry is headed to. <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-next-generation-of-wi-fi-in-conversation-with-cees-links/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Concepts like mesh WiFi networks are explored with excerpts from an interview with Cees Links, General Manager of the Low Power Wireless Business Unit in Qorvo and one of the leading pioneers of WiFi.&nbsp;</a></li><li>The final article introduces the readers to the <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/baw-filters-for-performance-improvements-in-wi-fi-5g-and-rf-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">concept, benefits, and applications of BAW filters in WiFi, 5G, and other RF communication systems designs.</a></li></ul><h2 dir="ltr">About the sponsor: Mouser Electronics</h2><a href="https://eu.mouser.com/" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a> is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 1,100 manufacturer brands. They specialize in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.<h2 dir="ltr"><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUyOTM5MzYyODQyLTE2NTI5MzkzNjI4NDIucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" alt="mouser-electronics-logo" class="fr-fic fr-dii"></h2>

Article #2 of Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions Series: Research in Wi-Fi today focuses on reducing interference more than anything else. By creating a distributed network with multiple tiny nodes, an ecosystem can be developed that auto-configures itself for best performance.

The Design Philosophy Behind Wi-Fi 6E: Recent Trends in Wireless Networking

Article #1 of Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions Series: Wi-Fi standards have come a long way since they first surfaced over two decades ago. The developments in its data transfer rates and range have led it to become the most prevalent wireless communication technology of present times.

The Evolution of Wi-Fi networks: from IEEE 802.11 to Wi-Fi 6E

This is the introductory article in a 6-part series featuring articles on Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions. The series focuses on the improvements Wi-Fi 6/6E and its applications bring to enhance the performance of the next-gen wireless networking devices. This series is sponsored by Mouser Electronics. Through the sponsorship, Mouser Electronics shares its passion for technologies that enable smarter connected applications.The objective of communication systems is to transfer information from one point to another reliably and within an acceptable time delay. But in the modern world, these are just the bare minimum requirements. Users today expect communication systems to offer gigabit speeds at low latencies. The introductory article of this new series aims to make readers familiar with the foundational terms and ideas in the world of wireless communication.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Developments in RF Communication</h2>Electromagnetic (EM) waves having a frequency between 3 kHz and 300 GHz all fall under the category of Radio Frequency (RF) signals. RF is probably the most popular and widely used means of communication via free space/wireless channels. <img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUyNTkzMDg5OTMyLTE2NTI1OTMwODk5MzIucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="electromagnetic-spectrum">Fig. 1: The electromagnetic spectrumWhile EM waves with a very short wavelength (in nanometers) like X-rays and gamma-rays have the potential to cause damage, RF waves are rather safe and are not known to have any side effects on humans. RF enables wireless communication in computers, smartphones, tablets, televisions, and a huge number of Internet of Things (IoT) devices.Guglielmo Marconi, an electrical engineer from Italy, was the first to prove the feasibility of wireless communication back in the late 1890s. Over the next couple of decades, as improvements were made in fabrication technology and large-scale circuit integration, RF equipment got smaller and more reliable. Contributions of various other scientists and engineers finally led RF communication to evolve from a rudimental messaging medium to a full-fledged high-speed data transmission medium.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Basics of RF communication</h2>All signals generated in nature are continuous or analog. They tend to be lossy and hence unfit for transmission in their natural form. To transfer them from one point to another, they need to be converted into digital signals and modulated suitably.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUyNTkzMDkwMTQ0LTE2NTI1OTMwOTAxNDQucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="RF-communication-block-diagram">Fig. 2: Block diagram of a basic RF communication systemAnalog-to-Digital converters are used to convert the analog signal available at the source into digital data. This digital signal data is then modulated by superimposing it on top of a high-frequency carrier wave. The modulated signal is transmitted via a transmitter antenna through the communication channel. While passing through the communication channel, a certain amount of noise gets added to the signal, which causes distortion in it. When the signal mixed with some noise reaches the receiver, it is demodulated, decoded, and passed through a Digital-to-Analog converter to recover the original message.On a very superficial level, the process remains more or less the same, but the hardware and the method used to actually carry out the process drastically varies between each wireless communication system.<h2 dir="ltr">Understanding RF Signal degradation</h2>The noise generated by the Internet of Things (IoT) and Industrial IoT devices has wreaked havoc with sensors and communication systems.[1] Systems emitting the radiation and the ones that are affected by it must be designed specifically to reduce the emissions and be tolerant to external radiation, respectively.Just like other EM waves, RF too exhibits some characteristic behaviors like reflection, refraction absorption, diffraction, and scattering. Due to these factors (which naturally take place in the environment sometimes), the RF signals tend to undergo a change in their frequency, wavelength, time period, phase, or maybe all of them and a few others.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUyNTkzMDkxMTMwLTE2NTI1OTMwOTExMzAucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="rf-wave-behavior-properties-scattering-reflection-diffraction-refraction-absorption">Fig. 3: Behavior and interactions of RF wavesAn important parameter to measure signal clarity is Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR). SNR, as the name suggests, is a measure of how dominant noise is in a particular signal. As the value of SNR approaches unity, the quality of the signal and the transmission increase. SNR along with Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) and noise floor levels are the three parameters widely used to determine the overall quality of RF signals.<h2 dir="ltr">Towards a connected future</h2>The biggest challenge today is not about discovering new ways to increase the raw data rates. It&rsquo;s all about protecting signals from degradation. Attenuation and losses that occur through the communication channel must be controlled to make use of the existing hardware to its fullest.<h2 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h2>Cutting-edge technologies that require a high-speed network connection are driving wireless data transfer needs to new heights like never before. At the same time, there is a rapid increase in the number of devices deployed in homes and industries. These factors contribute to the complexities of building the perfect wireless communication system for present times.&nbsp;This series takes you through the historical developments, challenges, enabling technologies, and some applications of RF communication. Throughout the series, the focus shall be on Wi-Fi 6/6E and the technologies enabling the latest wireless local area networking standard.&nbsp;However, references, explanations, and comparisons related to other RF communication technologies like 5G, Bluetooth&reg;, &nbsp;Zigbee&reg; and Matter will be added as and when needed. We&rsquo;ll also share an article containing excerpts from an interview with industry pioneer Cees Links, in which we discuss where the communication industry is headed. Finally, we&rsquo;ll take a look at Bulk Acoustic Wave filters and how they improve RF communication system design.This article is based on an <a href="https://www.mouser.com/news/qorvo-wifi6-app-ebook/mobile/index.html" target="_blank">e-magazine</a> published by Mouser and Qorvo. It has been substantially edited by the Wevolver team and Electrical Engineer <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/ravi.rao" target="_blank">Ravi Y Rao</a>. It&#39;s the introductory article to the Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions Series. Future articles will introduce readers to some interesting applications of the technology in various industries.<ul><li dir="ltr" id="isPasted">The introductory article <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/next-gen-wi-fi-applications-and-solutions" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">provided an overview of wireless communication and the subsequent articles of the series.&nbsp;</a></li><li dir="ltr">The first article&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-evolution-of-wi-fi-networks-from-ieee-80211-to-wi-fi-6e" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">explored the origins and the evolution of WiFi to showcase how the wireless local area networking standard improved over time.</a></li><li dir="ltr">The second article was&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-design-philosophy-behind-wi-fi-6e-recent-trends-in-wireless-networking/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">focused on recent trends and the design philosophy behind WiFi 6/6E.</a>&nbsp;The article explains why even with a marginal improvement in raw data rates, WiFi 6/6E is the biggest upgrade yet.</li><li dir="ltr">The third article dives into the technicalities of WiFi 6/6E.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/six-technologies-enabling-wi-fi-6e/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">It explains the 6 enabling technologies of WiFi 6/6E including OFDMA, BSS Coloring, TWT, Beamforming, 8X8 MU-MIMO, and 1024-QAM.</a></li><li dir="ltr">The fourth article is a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/future-of-wireless-communication-wi-fi-6e-or-5g/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">comparison between WiFi and 5G based on some of the key performance parameters.&nbsp;</a>It tries to form a perspective regarding which technology is suitable for different use cases.</li><li>The fifth article features a discussion on where the wireless communication industry is headed to. <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-next-generation-of-wi-fi-in-conversation-with-cees-links/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Concepts like mesh WiFi networks are explored with excerpts from an interview with Cees Links, General Manager of the Low Power Wireless Business Unit in Qorvo and one of the leading pioneers of WiFi.&nbsp;</a></li><li>The final article introduces the readers to the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/baw-filters-for-performance-improvements-in-wi-fi-5g-and-rf-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">concept, benefits, and applications of BAW filters in WiFi, 5G, and other RF communication systems designs. </a></li></ul><h2 dir="ltr">About the sponsor: Mouser Electronics</h2><a href="https://eu.mouser.com/" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a> is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 1,100 manufacturer brands. They specialize in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUyNTkzMDg5MzY4LTE2NTI1OTMwODkzNjgucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="mouser-electronics-logo"><h2 dir="ltr">References</h2>[1] Paul Pickering, &lsquo;Factory 4.0: The Biggest Problem May Be the Noise You Can&#39;t Hear&rsquo;, Mouser Electronics, [Online], Available from: &nbsp;<a href="https://www.mouser.com/applications/industry-4-0-noise/" target="_blank">https://www.mouser.com/applications/industry-4-0-noise/</a>

Introducing the Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions Series: Dive into the world of cutting-edge wireless communication. This new series introduces and explains the developments in Wi-Fi, 5G, and other RF technologies.

Next-gen Wi-Fi applications and Solutions

Cellular IoT is gaining momentum. The technologies LTE-M and NB-IoT are widely available as of today. 110 operators claim to have LTE-M and/or NB-IoT networks available and at least a dozen others are preparing their rollout as we speak. Over the past 14 years, LTE Cat 1 has proven itself as a good candidate for many IoT applications and led to the release of a new version of this category to make it better suitable for IoT application called: LTE Cat 1bis.While LTE-M, NB-IoT and LTE Cat 1(bis) technologies are growing in popularity, we see operators preparing the sunset of their 2G and 3G networks to reduce operational expenses and free up spectrum. In addition, public unlicensed networks don&#39;t seem to live up to their promise, looking at <a href="https://iot.eetimes.com/sigfox-files-for-bankruptcy-protection-to-survive-the-pandemic/" target="_blank">Sigfox filing for bankruptcy protection</a> and Bouygues Telecom <a href="https://objenious.com/blogpost/33947/" target="_blank">announcing</a> to shut down their public LoRaWAN network and focus on their cellular LPWAN technologies LTE-M and NB-IoT.&nbsp;When considering to start using cellular LPWAN (Low Power Wide Area Network), 2022 might be the perfect year. The technology has proven itself, networks are ready to use and hardware is widely available.<h2 dir="ltr">What do we mean with Cellular IoT?</h2>A brief history of LTE There is no such thing as an LTE standard. Instead there is a multitude of technologies that fall under the LTE umbrella. These technologies can be roughly classified into 2 groups: MBB (Mobile Broadband) and MTC (Machine Type Communication). With MBB technologies such as LTE Cat 4 and Cat 6 focussing on high data throughput and low latency, MTC aims at cutting down costs, improving link budget and reducing power consumption.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUxNTE5NDgwODIzLXdpcmVsZXNzIGV2b2x1dGlvbi5wbmciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Cellular IoT refers to MTC and allows sensors and actuators to be connected to the Internet. IoT devices require long-range connectivity (due to a large link-budget) as many devices are installed in remote and often hard to reach locations, low power consumption as most devices run on batteries for years and low cost as IoT deployments often come in large volumes.Cellular technologies designed for IoT devices are LTE Cat 1 (including Cat 1bis), LTE-M (also referred to as LTE Cat-M1 or eMTC) and NB-IoT (also called LTE Cat-NB). As of today, we see these technologies being used in smart city applications such as smart street lighting and payment terminals or points of sales. In agriculture to track livestock or precision agriculture and in the logistics industry to track valuable assets or optimize warehouse management.&nbsp;As shown in the coverage map below, large parts of Europe, North America and Oceania are already covered by LTE-M and NB-IoT technology, as well as several countries in Asia and South America. This makes asset tracking particularly interesting now that networks are widely available and goods can be tracked cross-border. In order to support LTE-M and NB-IoT, existing LTE cell towers require a software upgrade. LTE Cat 1(bis) however, is supported by all LTE infrastructure, making it a truly global standard as of today.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUxNTE5MzA5OTY0LUNvdmVyYWdlIG1hcCAyLnBuZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">LTE-M and/or NB-IoT coverage.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.gsma.com/iot/deployment-map/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Source GSMA</a><a href="https://www.gsma.com/iot/deployment-map/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"></a>Getting started with cellular IoTMonogoto allows developers to kickstart their cellular IoT journey. The Monogoto Developer program comprising multiple virtual training sessions, covers the ins-and-outs of cellular IoT and supports developers in building their next IoT project with LTE-M technology.Topics covered<ul><li dir="ltr">Fundamentals of cellular IoT</li><li dir="ltr">AT Commands</li><li dir="ltr">Power optimization using eDRX &amp; PSM</li><li dir="ltr">Integrating and acting on sensor data</li><li dir="ltr">Working with Monogoto&rsquo;s API</li><li dir="ltr">Breaking down real-life IoT use cases</li></ul><a href="https://lp.monogoto.io/developers-program-workshop-recording" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Learn more</a>

The technologies LTE-M, NB-IoT and LTE Cat 1bis are widely available as of today. 2022 might be the perfect year to kickstart your cellular IoT journey.

Cellular IoT is gaining momentum

This is the final article in a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/challenges-and-trends-in-connectivity-technologies-for-smart-manufacturing/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">6-part series</a>&nbsp;featuring the connectivity technologies that are enabling the Industrial IoT revolution. The series introduces and explains the applications of wired and wireless connectivity technologies in various industries. This series is sponsored by Mouser Electronics. Through its sponsorship,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/mouser.electronics" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a>&nbsp;shares its passion for technologies that enable the continued sustainable growth of Industrial IoT.<h2 dir="ltr">Introduction</h2>Staying connected in manufacturing facilities is crucial for efficient production and high productivity. &nbsp;Implementing M2M (Machine-to-Machine) and IIoT (Industrial Internet of Things) networks facilitates the connection that enables streamlined processes and reduced downtime while increasing automated procedures. M2M communication used in devices such as smart meters is connected with servers to ensure continuous monitoring and reflect real-time data. Facilities can use smart lighting on an automated schedule to reduce electricity costs and improve worker safety. These are just some of the hundreds of thousands of applications of M2M communication and IIoT.The one thing common between all the connected devices is the wireless antenna which brings everything together. This article explains the most common applications and performance parameters of the technology. Various characteristic plots and radiation patterns for a typical 2.4 GHz Printed Circuit Board (PCB) antenna are shown in a later section of the article.<h2 dir="ltr">Applications of wireless communication and antennas in various sectors</h2>Here is a list of some application scenarios of antennas in particular and wireless communication in general.<h3 dir="ltr">Consumer Electronics Applications</h3>Bluetooth and WiFi antennas are used to connect mobile devices and smart appliances in homes and workplaces. &nbsp;TVs, audio systems, vacuum cleaners, heating, cooling, and lighting can all be controlled from one easy-to-use, centralized hub. &nbsp;<h3 dir="ltr">Medical Applications</h3>Antennas are used for data transmission in various medical instruments. Wearable medical devices rely on embedded antennas to transmit information such as heart rate, blood pressure, oxygen levels, and time spent exercising from the wearable device to the smartphone or cloud server. This data is stored and can be related to medical providers in person or through telehealth/telemedicine to aid in diagnosis and treatment.<h3 dir="ltr">Telecommunication</h3>The cellular telecommunication market is the foundation of IoT networks and platforms. &nbsp;It allows communication in the form of voice and data to transmit from one device to another over a wireless network. The telecom industry plays a pivotal role in society as an enabling technology for various personal, economic, and business-related activities.<h3 dir="ltr">Retail Applications</h3>Retailers use IoT embedded systems across a number of applications that improve store operations such as promotions, theft prevention, inventory management, all in order to enhance the consumer&rsquo;s shopping experience. Some examples of systems utilized in retail are personalized retail marketing, staffing level indicators, cashier-less payment systems, movement tracking systems, and inventory management tools.&nbsp;<h3 dir="ltr">Smart Farming Applications</h3>Smart farming is often considered an overlooked IoT market. With the help of precision agriculture and smart farming, plantation and livestock can be managed through remotely operated machines powered by &nbsp;AI. For example, monitoring tags can be attached to animals to collect data about their health and location. Drones are also used these days for planting crops and agricultural spraying. Moisture sensors and solenoid valves are used to develop automatic irrigation systems.<h3 dir="ltr">Smart Supply Chain Applications</h3>Communication technologies with antennas in supply chains offer solutions to problems like tracking of goods while in transit and helping suppliers exchange inventory information. With an IoT-enabled system, factory equipment that contains embedded sensors monitor different parameters as per the requirement. Smart IoT systems can also process workflows and change equipment settings to optimize their performance. Antennas play an important role in receiving and transmitting these signals.<h3 dir="ltr">Smart City Applications</h3>There are a large number of smart city applications ranging from water distribution, traffic management, waste management, environmental monitoring, to security-related applications in which getting the devices connected wirelessly is a necessity. IoT solutions offered in smart cities solve various problems related to traffic, air quality, and waste management.&nbsp;<h3 dir="ltr">Automotive Applications</h3>Automotive antennas enable real-time communication with the surroundings to create a connected ecosystem. They provide consistent, accurate, and timely connectivity between the vehicle and its environment which is critical as more vehicles get autonomous functionalities. Developing stronger computing and communication technologies is the key to moving from assisted driving technologies to autonomous driving technologies.<h2 dir="ltr">Measuring the performance of PCB Antennas</h2>Several types of IoT antennas are available in the market with different working frequencies. The typical antenna band for M2M devices is about 900MHz with low power consumption and can go up to 2.4 or 5.0 GHz in other applications.&nbsp;Here is an example of the most commonly used 2.4 GHz PCB antenna to show performance, measurement settings, and use conditions. The other IoT antennas available in the market are similar and only differ in size and frequency.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQyMDk2MTU1ODEyLXJlZyAoMSkuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 1: A PCB antenna by Amphenol with an operating frequency band of 2.4GHz ~ 2.5GHz. In practice, the antenna is usually assembled near a PCB that acts as the module ground.<h3 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Antenna performance parameters and the test setup for evaluation&nbsp;<iframe id="6442689442b6bf0008cae509" width="250" class="specs-iframe" height="420" src="https://wevolver.com/iframe/specs/trinamic-tmc2210-eval-evaluation-kit?iframe=true" frameborder="0" scrolling="true" data-gtm-yt-inspected-9="true" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe></h3>A network analyzer like the Keysight E5071C can test an antenna for its return loss and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR). Both the terms are used to quantify the levels of reflected power in an antenna.&nbsp;Return loss indicates the difference between the forward and reflected power (in dB). Ideally, the value of return loss should be maximum which indicates maximum transmission. VSWR is another numerical term used to indicate how well the antennas&rsquo; impedance is matched with the line. Smaller values of VSWR are desired.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQyMDk2MjY1ODgzLXJlZyAoMykuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 2: &nbsp;Keysight E5071C network analyzerA Satimo 3D chamber can be used to test the antenna&rsquo;s efficiency and radiation pattern for various frequencies. The observations indicate how an antenna might perform and interact with the objects surrounding it.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQyMDk2MDk0NjA2LXJlZyAoMikuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 3: The Satimo 3D chamber used for testing the antenna performance parametersAs mentioned before, the antenna is usually placed near the ground, under the practical operating condition, so for performing the tests, &nbsp;the PCB itself is used as the ground.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQyMDk1MDY3MjQ4LXJlZy5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 4: Antenna test setups on PCB (left) and in free space (right) Source: Mouser/Wevolver<h3 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Antenna characteristics plots</h3>Using the test setup explained in the previous section, various plots are obtained. One can notice how the frequency response of the antenna showcases the optimal characteristics for operation near the 2.4 GHz - 2.5 GHz band which is the typical range of operation for the antenna used in testing.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQyMDk1MTM3NzEwLTE2NDIwOTUxMzc3MTAucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 5: Return loss (left) and VSWR (right) of the antenna. Source: Mouser/Amphenol<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQyMDk1MTk2MjQ4LTE2NDIwOTUxOTYyNDgucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 6: Efficiency (left) and Peak gain (right) of the antenna. Source: Mouser/Amphenol<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQyMDk1MjM2MjM4LTE2NDIwOTUyMzYyMzgucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 7: Average gain of the antenna. Source: Mouser/Amphenol<h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Radiation Patterns</h2>Radiation patterns help engineers perform a spatial analysis of the signal strength. These patterns indicate the power of the electromagnetic signals emitted by the antenna in all directions. By observing the diagrams in all three dimensions, an accurate understanding of the antenna&rsquo;s performance can be understood.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQzODI0NjQzMTQ1LTEuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 8: Radiation pattern of an antenna in free space. XZ plane, Phi=0&deg; (left), YZ plane, Phi=90&deg; (center) and XY plane, Theta = 90&deg; (right)<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQzODI0NzE3MzEyLTIuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 9: Radiation pattern of an antenna on PCB ground. XZ plane, Phi=0&deg; (left), YZ plane, Phi=90&deg; (center) and XY plane, Theta = 90&deg; (right)<h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Enabling Wireless Communication in Industrial Devices with Amphenol MCP</h2><a href="https://www.mouser.com/manufacturer/amphenol-mcp/" target="_blank">Amphenol Mobile Consumer Products</a> (MCP), &nbsp;one of the world&#39;s largest, full service, custom antenna solution providers, is the designer and manufacturer of antennas used in mobile terminals with high performance, miniaturization, and quality at a low cost.&nbsp;Amphenol MCP designs and manufactures internal, external, retractable, and several other types of antennas used in platforms such as mobile devices (mobile phones, laptops, tablets, wearables), set-top boxes, gaming consoles, automobiles, M2M communication systems, and numerous IoT devices. Single and multi-band antenna solutions cover all wireless bands including USGSM, GSM, PCS, DCS, UMTS, GPS, CDMA, DVB-H, Bluetooth, WLAN, WiMAX, 802.11a, and 802.11b/g. Amphenol MCP has state-of-the-art R&amp;D facilities in Shanghai, Beijing, and Shenzhen.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h2>Connectivity technologies have a key role to play in the rapidly evolving industries. These technologies will help achieve accurate control over the industrial processes, reduce time to market, be highly scalable, and offer maximum safety. It is not just one, but an aggregation of multiple innovative cutting-edge technologies that are leading us to the next industrial revolution.&nbsp;This article was initially published by Mouser and Amphenol in an <a href="https://www.mouser.com/news/Amphenol-iiot-revolution/amphenol-Industrial-Iot-ebook.html" target="_blank">e-magazine</a>. It has been substantially edited by the Wevolver team and Electrical Engineer <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/ravi.rao" target="_blank">Ravi Y Rao</a>. It&#39;s the final article of a 6-part series that covers the applications and performance of antennas used in wireless communication.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/improved-electrical-interconnects-for-data-centers-with-higher-power-delivery-and-smaller-footprint" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Article one</a>&nbsp;explained how electrical interconnects are engineered in data centers to deliver high power in a small footprint.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/improving-hvacr-and-iaq-control-systems-with-innovative-iiot-sensors" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Article two</a> was about the sensing technologies used in Building Automation Systems<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/challenges-and-trends-in-connectivity-technologies-for-smart-manufacturing" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Article three</a> analyzed the key trends and challenges for connectivity technologies used in smart manufacturing.<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/engineering-interconnects-for-harsh-environments" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Article four</a> provided an overview of electrical interconnects for harsh environments.<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/assuring-signal-integrity-in-a-connected-construction-environment" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Article five</a> explored the connectivity technologies used at construction sites.<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/applications-and-performance-parameters-of-antennas-in-iiot/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Article six</a> examined the applications and performance parameters of antennas that enable wireless communication.<h2 dir="ltr">About the sponsor: Mouser</h2><a href="https://eu.mouser.com/" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a> is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 1,100 manufacturer brands. They specialize in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, sensors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQyMDk2MzIxMTA2LWV5SmlkV05yWlhRaU9pSjNaWFp2YkhabGNpMXdjbTlxWldOMExXbHRZV2RsY3lJc0ltdGxlU0k2SW1aeWIyRnNZUzh4TmpReU1EQXhOekEwTkRVeUxXbHRZV2RsTnk1d2JtY2lMQ0psWkdsMGN5STZleUp5WlhOcGVtVWlPbnNpZDJsa2RHZ2lPamsxTUN3aVptbDBJam9pWTI5MlpYSWlmWDE5LndlYnAiLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">

Article #6 of our Industrial IoT revolution series: Antennas are devices enabling wireless communication by interconverting electrical signals and electromagnetic waves. 

Applications and performance parameters of antennas in IIoT

This is the seventh article in an eight-part series exploring 5G. The series will explain key terms and technologies and provide an overview of current and future applications for 5G connectivity.&nbsp;The articles were originally published in an e-magazine, and have been substantially edited by Wevolver to update them and make them available on the Wevolver platform.&nbsp;This series is sponsored by Mouser, an online distributor of electronic components. Through their sponsorship,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/mouser.electronics" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a>&nbsp;supports a more connected future fuelled by knowledge and innovation.&nbsp;<hr><h1>Introduction</h1>The Fifth-Generation New Radio (5G NR) communications framework provides an entirely new approach to cellular communications. It supports <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/first-digital-single-chip-millimeter-wave-beamformer-will-exploit-5g-capabilities" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">scalable waveforms</a>, multiple access schemes, and service multiplexing across wide bandwidths. It also supports existing services while being forward compatible with future requirements.Although 5G wireless requires more complex signal processing and the ability to handle much higher data rates than previous protocols, one of the keys to its success is antenna design. This article reviews how 5G use cases and the 5G specification are changing antenna designs and how these new designs are overcoming some of the greatest difficulties in implementing 5G networks.<h1>The 5G NR Specification and What It Means for Antenna Design</h1>5G was conceived as a <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/understanding-the-3gpp-release-15-5g-standard" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">specification</a> to deliver the following capabilities:<ul><li>Enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB) for data-intensive applications such as augmented reality (AR), three-dimensional (3D) video conferencing, two-dimensional (2D) streaming video, fixed wireless access to Internet connectivity, and other high-bandwidth applications</li><li>Massive machine-type communications (mMTC) for direct Internet of Things (IoT) connectivity on a massive scale, including high-density arrays of sensors and devices in connected cities and homes, devices for monitoring complex global supply chains, and connected devices moving at high speeds</li><li>Ultra-reliable low-latency communications (URLLC) for mission-critical, real-time applications such as industrial control systems; autonomous vehicles (AVs); and applications that require high bandwidths, high reliability, and low latencies, such as remote real-time surgeries</li></ul>Meeting these mandates requires a new spectrum. 5G wireless has been assigned a new spectrum in low and mid bands (up to 6 gigahertz [GHz]) and in high bands (with millimeter wavelengths above 24GHz). One challenge for 5G antenna designs is that some devices need to operate in multiple bands. Another is that millimeter wavelengths transmitted at cellular network power levels are subject to higher absorption by buildings, vegetation, and raindrops than low and mid bands. This limits millimeter wavelength communications to line of sight, which necessitates small cell networks that can increase chances of edge interference between cells.There are also antenna size considerations. Although higher frequencies allow smaller antennas to achieve the same level of gain, smaller antenna areas capture less energy, resulting in a shorter effective range than lower frequencies. On the other hand, an antenna with a fixed physical area increases gains for both transmissions and receptions as a frequency increases and beam width shrinks. The optimum antenna size for different implementations will balance size versus gain tradeoffs.<h1>5G Antenna Technology and Designs</h1>Meeting 5G NR objectives requires new antenna designs that use active antenna arrays to provide better coverage, reduce interference, and increase data-carrying capacity.<h2>Accommodating the Full Spectrum of 5G Frequency Ranges</h2>To operate in its full range of assigned frequencies, 5G NR uses a scalable framework that functions at frequencies between 450 megahertz (MHz) and 6GHz (frequency range 1 [FR1]) and between 24.25 and 52.6GHz (frequency range 2 [FR2]). 5G NR does this by using scalable orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (ODFM) waveforms that allow different subcarrier signal spacing to fit the various channel widths that different frequency ranges provide. Higher frequencies provide wider channels and greater subcarrier spacing. Lower frequencies use smaller channel widths and narrower subcarrier spacing. Scaling subcarrier spacing to available channel widths enables the 5G framework to operate across a broad range of frequencies. The result makes it possible to deploy 5G in existing 4G Long-Term Evolution (LTE) networks. It also makes it possible for 5G communications systems to switch between low- and high-frequency bands based on use cases or workload requirements.The challenge for antenna designers is physics. A 1GHz signal, which is in FR1, has a wavelength of about 30 centimeters (cm). A 28GHz signal in FR2 has a wavelength of 1.07mm. The same antenna will not work for these two signals, so 5G devices operating in both FR1 and FR2 bands will require at least two sets of antennas. This is manageable in large equipment and base stations that have room for multiple antenna arrays. It becomes a significant design challenge for small devices and cell phones.<h2>Device Density, Data Throughput, and Massive MIMO</h2>One challenge presented by the 5G specification is the need to support much higher densities of connected devices that are operating simultaneously at much higher data rates. This will require higher cell densities and more extensive use of the multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) antenna technologies already in use in 4G LTE networks. MIMO is an antenna array of multiple transmitting and receiving antennas (which in current LTE networks, often contains an 8 x 8 antenna array). MIMO uses spatial multiplexing to break a signal into encoded streams that it simultaneously transmits through different antennas in the array. Both the transmitting and receiving devices have multiple antennas and signal processing for encoding and decoding multiplexed signals. This makes it possible to:<h1>Communicate with multiple users and devices simultaneously.</h1><h2>Communicate with higher throughput</h2>Many variations of MIMO exist. A key variation for 5G is massive MIMO (mMIMO), an antenna design that packs many more antenna elements into a dense array than previous MIMO versions. Lower-frequency antennas are larger, which creates practical limits to how many antenna elements will fit in a reasonably sized low-frequency MIMO array. Millimeter wavelengths work with much smaller antennas, which makes it possible to build mMIMO arrays in small packages. Some manufacturers are building mMIMO antennas that contain 128 elements. By increasing the number of data streams, mMIMO increases signal capacity without requiring more spectrum, which in turn increases data rates and link reliability.<h2>Beamforming, Directionality, and User Equipment Tracking</h2>Beamforming is a method of shaping a transmission to create a well-defined antenna pattern targeted at a specific receiving antenna. It is done by adjusting phase and amplitude transmissions through different antenna elements in an array of equally spaced antennas. Beamforming can be used to reduce interference, and it also increases range by concentrating beam energy. Initial 5G deployments using midband frequencies will employ 4 x 4 or 8 x 8 MIMO antennas set up to enable beamforming, similar to what is currently available in LTE. High frequency (millimeter wavelength) 5G deployments will take advantage of adaptive arrays using larger mMIMO antennas with many more antenna elements and capable of tighter beamforming and real-time steering.5G beamforming depends on a transmitting device&rsquo;s determination of the optimum signal path to its receiver. The transmitter does this by analyzing the sounding reference signals (SRSs) sent between the transmitter and the receiver, and then evaluating these signals to establish the channel state. Based on channel state information (CSI), the transmitter applies beamforming algorithms that transmit shaped radio patterns in the optimum direction and during the best schedule for the best reception. Beamforming will bounce transmissions off buildings if that is the optimum path to a receiver. In an environment where many devices use the same mMIMO channels, algorithms will time data packets to avoid packet collisions, minimizing signal interference.To avoid interference and signal interruptions, transmitters continuously track receiving equipment and recalculate optimum data paths. This enables transmission adjustments in real time to ensure consistent, uninterrupted data connections when 5G devices (for example, vehicles or cell phones) move or when objects block an optimum signal path. Beamforming is a calculation-intensive process that requires active MIMO antennas with robust signal processing capabilities.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjA3MzQ0MzU3OTU1LW1vdXNlciA2IGJlYW0uanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 788px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><h2>Downlink and Uplink Requirements</h2>The 5G specification facilitates a maximum downlink data rate that is twice the uplink data rate in given use cases. In current deployment phases below 2.6GHz, 5G requires at least a 4 x 4 downlink MIMO and recommends at least a 2 x 2 uplink MIMO.<h2>Antenna Designs for Different Use Cases</h2>5G deployments will require many antenna packages for indoor and outdoor use, small cell and macro-coverage, and many different kinds of terminal equipment. The following are some 5G antenna design considerations based on several common deployment cases.<h2>Base Stations</h2>Most cell phone towers today are highly congested. Building compact 5G antennas that integrate lower and higher frequencies is the most cost-effective solution. In addition, placing antennas on light poles and corners of buildings for small cell coverage will require compact designs. Several telecom operators have begun deploying small 4G cells to address bandwidth and latency issues. Early 5G deployments will involve placing 5G antennas beside existing 4G LTE antennas or installing replacement antenna units that serve as both 4G LTE and lower-frequency 5G antennas in one.Eventually, different frequency ranges will be used for different implementations. For example, some outdoor coverage in 700MHz-range macro and small-cell implementations will operate in the 3 to 5GHz range. High-bandwidth indoor and outdoor applications will likely take advantage of micro-cell architectures that use distributed antenna systems. As this higher frequency 5G rolls out, mMIMO arrays with many antenna elements will help reduce network congestion and increase base station capacity.<h2>User and Terminal Equipment</h2>Data, communication requirements, operational frequencies, and equipment design will dictate antenna designs in different 5G applications. There are many uses for 5G connected sensors and control equipment, especially in manufacturing, infrastructure monitoring and control, agriculture, and fixed wireless Internet access, to replace cable connections. Sensors and controllers optimized for low-data rates and low latencies will need to operate at specific frequencies. Fixed wireless Internet access is likely to use a combination of sub-6GHz frequencies for control plane signals and millimeter wavelengths that deliver high throughput and low latencies for end-user equipment. Other applications, such as autonomous vehicles, will have more complex requirements involving vehicle-to-anything (V2X) communications, which include low-latency control functions and high bandwidth requirements. Vehicles offer flexibility for embedding antenna arrays into the bodies of the vehicles themselves.<h2>Cell Phones</h2>Cell phones are already packed with antennas, so adding antennas to support the full range of 5G frequencies will be a challenge. These phones also have limited real estate, but they will need MIMO antennas for high-level performance and antennas located on the phones&rsquo; edges and corners that support beamforming, specifically to compensate for objects that block millimeter waves (mmWaves), like a user&rsquo;s hand.<h1>The Challenges of 5G Antenna Design</h1>5G antennas have a key role to play in making 5G communications work, but they present engineering challenges. Antenna designers typically begin with antenna simulation software that, given certain assumptions, can project signal fields. But, this is only a first step.A significant challenge in 5G antenna designs is antenna testing. 5G antennas are not static, omnidirectional devices. They are active, and they beam their transmissions to specific devices. Putting a 5G antenna in a test room and applying a static test does not show how it will perform when it is simultaneously communicating with a thousand moving devices in a noisy RF environment. Most antenna designers are not sure of the most effective means to test or validate performance for devices that use mMIMO arrays. Testing methods will likely involve scenario-based automated testing.5G antenna designs are still very much a work in progress. The initial phase of the 5G deployment is just beginning, and it will involve installing low-frequency 5G to work in collaboration with 4G LTE. This is the testbed for future deployments requiring more complex antenna designs.This article was originally written by&nbsp;David Talbot for Mouser and substantially edited by the Wevolver team. It&#39;s the seventh article of a series exploring 5G. Future articles will explore how 5G differs from existing technology and how the potential of hyper-connectivity will be applied in entertainment, smart cities, and industry and how to get there.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/a-forward-glance-at-5g-applying-backwards-thinking" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"></a><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/a-forward-glance-at-5g-applying-backwards-thinking" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank"></a>Article One gives <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/a-forward-glance-at-5g-applying-backwards-thinking" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">an overview of 5G.&nbsp;</a>Article Two&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/an-introduction-to-5g" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">introduces key terms and technologies.&nbsp;</a>Article Three&nbsp;discusses&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/where-does-5g-fit-in-the-connectivity-ecosystem" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">how systems engineers can evaluate the viability of 5G in the existing connectivity ecosystem.</a>Article Four <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/understanding-the-3gpp-release-15-5g-standard" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">examines the relevant standards associated with 5G.</a>Article Five&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/5g-infrastructure-enables-new-and-radical-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">showcases the radical applications 5G will enable.</a>Article Six <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/ecosystems-of-5g-engineering-infrastructure" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">looks at the ecosystems of 5G infrastructure.</a>Article Seven <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/5g-antenna-design" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">dives into 5G Antenna Designs.</a><hr><h1>About the sponsor: Mouser</h1>Mouser Electronics is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 800 industry-leading manufacturers. They specialize in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjA3MzQ0NTAzODE1LW1vdXNlciBsb2dvIGZvb3Rlci5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 788px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">

Article 7 of our 5G Series: 5G antenna design is critical to its broader success.

5G Antenna Design

This is the sixth article in an eight-part series exploring 5G. The series will explain key terms and technologies and provide an overview of current and future applications for 5G connectivity.The articles were originally published in an e-magazine, and have been substantially edited by Wevolver to update them and make them available on the Wevolver platform. This series is sponsored by Mouser, an online distributor of electronic components. Through their sponsorship, <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/mouser.electronics" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a>&nbsp;supports a more connected future fuelled by knowledge and innovation.<h1>Introduction</h1>The fifth-generation (5G) of what used to be called cellular radio is like none before it. It encompasses not just smartphones and tablets but almost everything that can benefit from being connected to other things and the Internet. For the first time, connecting businesses is as important as connecting consumers, and while mobility remains the core focus of the 5G operating environment, 5G will also serve many fixed applications. Whether catering to mobile or fixed applications, the 5G infrastructure will still need base stations&mdash;orders of magnitude more of them than currently exist&mdash;but deploying these base stations may be the most challenging task in developing a complete 5G ecosystem.<h1>Virtualization</h1>The impact of 5G on the current wireless infrastructure affects all three major use cases: Traditional mobile, called enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB); massive machine-type communications (mMTC) Internet of Things (IoT) environments; and the newest and most demanding use case, ultra-reliable low-latency communications (URLLC). Serving all three of these use cases requires a change from a hardware-based network architecture to one that&rsquo;s virtual and based on network function virtualization (NFV), software-defined networking (SDN), processing and analytics at the network&rsquo;s edge, network slicing, and other technologies new to the wireless infrastructure.The transition from hardware- to software-based (i.e., virtual) networks affects base stations of all sizes. The two &ldquo;virtualizers&rdquo; of this new paradigm&mdash;NFV and SDN&mdash;perform similar functions because they provide far greater network control using less hardware, thus reducing or eliminating changes to hardware as the network evolves. The capacity of these virtualizers also means less hardware may be necessary.<h2>Network Virtualization Using the Digital Domain</h2>The benefits of network virtualization are now being realized as virtualization empowers software to perform functions in the digital domain rather than through analog and digital hardware, as has been the case before. Still, this shift to virtualization will quite obviously require substantial computational resources, a point that has not been overlooked by Arm Limited (Arm&reg;), an organization best known for its architectural designs for smartphones, network processors, and embedded processors.Arm&rsquo;s first computing ecosystems tailored exclusively for servers and infrastructure design are the Neoverse&trade; series of processors. Each processor in the series includes not just a central processing unit (CPU) core but an interconnected scheme, making it possible to scale up to many cores. Neoverse processors will likely find a home at the network&rsquo;s edge, where high-performance computing is increasingly becoming necessary. These processors are also well suited for 5G base stations, which will ultimately handle much more data than 4G Long-Term Evolution (LTE) networks but with greater DC power constraints.<h1>Toward Higher Spectral Efficiency</h1>An entirely different approach will be required for the technology dedicated to generating and receiving signals over the air. For example, techniques such as massive multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) that rely on digital signal processing (DSP) still need to convert the analog signal to a digital form. Fortunately, major advances are being made to address this need from lower frequencies to the microwave, and millimeter-wave regions, with semiconductors that generate and receive RF signals to and from the antennas.RF Output PowerFor the past two decades, base station RF power amplifiers (PAs) have used lateral double-diffused metal-oxide semiconductor (LDMOS) field-effect transistors to generate RF power in macro-base stations. This technology has advanced dramatically over the years with respect to the amount of power a single device can generate (currently, about 2 kilowatts [kW]) and use efficiently, beating every other potential competitor. But, LDMOS has a maximum useful operating frequency of about 4 gigahertz (GHz), which eliminates its use at most of the new frequencies proposed for 5G networks. The technology that will take the mantle is gallium nitride (GaN), which, in the less than 15 years it&rsquo;s been commercially available, has cemented its place as the next big thing in RF power.For example, a <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/are.gan.semiconductor.power.components.ready.for.automotive" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">GaN semiconductor</a> die can produce 10 times the RF power output per unit of die than gallium arsenide (GaAs), with higher efficiency, higher-voltage operation, and superior thermal characteristics. GaN on silicon carbide (SiC) substrates offers better performance than GaN on silicon substrates, but it also costs more. This means that the latter will find a home in cost-critical small cells, where it will compete with GaAs, the predominant power semiconductor technology that has been used in smartphones for many years.At millimeter-wave frequencies, where high RF output is difficult to achieve in a solid-state device, silicon germanium (SiGe), complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS), and GaAs will be the key technologies. All these technologies, except LDMOS, will also be important for either RF power generation or receiving applications, such as low-noise amplifiers (LNAs).RF Front Ends: Packaging Functional IntegrationThe 5G infrastructure will require that manufacturers of microwave and millimeter-wave devices increase their functional integration to reduce costs, complexity, and size and meet the needs of small cell base stations (as well as end-user devices). Packaging technology will be an essential ingredient in achieving this goal because although 4G increased the number of bands that a radio must accommodate to about 30, 5G will increase this number to 40 and perhaps more. Accommodating all these bands in a single device is unlikely, especially considering each band has different characteristics and thus requires different technologies. Nonetheless, each band segment, from sub-1GHz to millimeter wavelengths, must be as highly integrated as possible.To create these highly integrated RF devices, manufacturers of RF front ends (RFFEs) are taking a variety of approaches. Let&rsquo;s see what approaches Analog Devices, Skyworks Solutions, and Qorvo are taking to fabricate products that accomplish this feat.<h1>Summary</h1>The good news for manufacturers and carriers is that all the necessary technologies to fully implement the 5G infrastructure won&rsquo;t be needed all at once, so developments can continue apace as networks are deployed in the number that is essential to blanket coverage areas. Considering this flexibility in the 5G infrastructure, all signs point to 5G rolling out close to predicted timelines.Verizon&trade;, AT&amp;T&reg;, and T-Mobile&reg; continue to add more and more cities to the list of where 5G wireless is available in the United States and in Europe, as of June 2020 commercial 5G has been <a href="https://5gobservatory.eu/market-developments/5g-services/" target="_blank">deployed in 14 countries</a> through service providers including Three, T-Mobile and Vodafone.This article was originally written by&nbsp;Barry Manz for Mouser and substantially edited by the Wevolver team. It&#39;s the sixth article of an eight-part series exploring 5G. Future articles will explore how 5G differs from existing technology and how the potential of hyper-connectivity will be applied in entertainment, smart cities, and industry and how to get there.&nbsp;Article One gives <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/a-forward-glance-at-5g-applying-backwards-thinking" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">an overview of 5G.&nbsp;</a>Article Two&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/an-introduction-to-5g" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">introduces key terms and technologies.&nbsp;</a>Article Three&nbsp;discusses&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/where-does-5g-fit-in-the-connectivity-ecosystem" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">how systems engineers can evaluate the viability of 5G in the existing connectivity ecosystem.</a>Article Four <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/understanding-the-3gpp-release-15-5g-standard" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">examines the relevant standards associated with 5G.</a>Article Five&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/5g-infrastructure-enables-new-and-radical-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">showcases the radical applications 5G will enable.</a>Article Seven&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/5g-antenna-design" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">dives into 5G Antenna Designs.</a><hr><h1>About the sponsor: Mouser</h1>Mouser Electronics is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 800 industry-leading manufacturers. They specialize in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjA3MzM5Njk3MDUxLW1vdXNlciBsb2dvIGZvb3Rlci5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 788px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">

Article 6 of our 5G Series: The potential of 5G can only be unlocked with a large-scale infrastructure deployment. 

Ecosystems of 5G Engineering: Infrastructure

This is the fourth article in an eight-part series exploring 5G. The series will explain key terms and technologies and provide an overview of current and future applications for 5G connectivity.

Understanding the 3GPP Release 15 5G Standard

This is the second in an eight-part series exploring 5G. The series will explain key terms and technologies and provide an overview of current and future applications for 5G connectivity.The articles were originally published in an e-magazine, and have been substantially edited by Wevolver to update them and make them available on the Wevolver platform. This series is sponsored by Mouser, an online distributor of electronic components. Through their sponsorship,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/mouser.electronics" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a>&nbsp;supports a more connected future fuelled by knowledge and innovation.&nbsp;<h1>Introduction</h1>The 5G mobile communications standard is designed to fulfill several performance and use case requirements currently not possible in 4G networks, including:<ul><li>Enhanced broadband that brings fiber-optic speeds and bandwidth to over-the-air (OTA) connections</li><li>Low latencies and extreme reliability for realtime OTA process control</li><li>Much higher device densities that will enable the massive Internet of Things (IoT) connectivity that is anticipated in smart cities</li><li>More energy efficiency to meet the increasing demand for low-power connectivity</li><li>High-speed adaptability for high-speed mobile applications</li><li>On-demand network scalability to meet the requirements of many industrial use cases</li></ul>Specifications outlined in 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP&trade;) Release 15 provide details for 5G New Radio (NR), which addresses the 5G air interface, and 5G Core, which deals with network functions. Both 5G NR and 5G Core are required to meet 5G performance expectations. This article looks at how 5G differs from 4G with respect to its performance, radio access technology, and network core functions. It further reviews how 5G specifications make new applications possible and how the 5G standard impacts component designs.<h1>How Does 5G Differ from 4G?</h1><img class="fr-fic fr-dib" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNjA0MzQ3MzU5ODIyLUlsbHVzdHJhdGlvbiAwMy0wMSBlZGl0ZWQuanBnIiwgImVkaXRzIjogeyJyZXNpemUiOiB7IndpZHRoIjogOTUwLCAiZml0IjogImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 788px;">Meeting 5G&rsquo;s performance expectations requires additional spectrum as well as different waveforms and a flexible framework that allows service multiplexing and more dynamic multiple access capabilities. 5G meets these requirements through a new approach to scalable waveforms that works across a range of frequencies, creating an entirely new approach to session and network management.<h2>5G NR Increases Flexibility and Reduces Overhead</h2>5G NR applies a common waveform framework that scales across a range of bandwidths. Several techniques contribute to 5G&rsquo;s spectrum efficiency, flexibility, and reduced power consumption. Key differences between 5G NR and 4G Long-Term Evolution (LTE) include:<ul><li>Scalable orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (ODFM) numerology. ODFM is a widely used waveform for encoding digital communications. Its waveform numerology defines the structure and timing of information resources that the waveform carries, such as the number of subcarriers and the subcarrier spacing. Both 4G LTE and 5G NR use ODFM, but there are big differences. In 4G LTE, the numerology is always fixed; in 5G NR, the numerology is scalable for optimization in different bandwidths. This means that the subcarrier size and spacing are scalable to fit bandwidths that different frequencies provide. It also enables scalable TTI, which makes it possible to adjust latencies from very low for short-duration transmissions to longer latencies that make transmitting large data packets more efficient. Scalable ODFM numerology is the heart of 5G&rsquo;s scalability and flexibility.</li><li>Self-contained subframes. Introduced in the 5G NR specification, these structures enable the inclusion of data along with their transmission acknowledgments in the same subframe, further reducing latencies. They also enable the multiplexing of different kinds of subframes, and they support blank subframes to accommodate undefined future services. Self-contained subframes can also contain beamforming data specific to a transmission, which supports multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) antenna transmissions and reduces interference.</li><li>Device-centric mobility. In LTE networks, receiving devices measure reference signals that base stations transmit to decide where to connect. Base stations transmit reference signals continuously, regardless of the presence of a receiving device&mdash;which requires processing overhead on the receiving device and excess power consumption by the transmitting equipment. In 5G transmissions, receiving devices transmit a reference signal when they need a network connection, and this reference signal triggers communication and handoff activities using appropriate transmitting equipment. This arrangement reduces power consumption and the number of reference signal broadcasts.</li><li>New cell architectures and antenna designs. To support larger numbers of connected devices, uninterrupted communications, and shorter operational ranges available from high-frequency bands, 5G will require denser cell architectures than are found in 4G LTE networks. Typical deployments could include a mix of macro-cells operating in low frequencies for wide outdoor coverage, small cells operating indoors and outdoors in mid-frequency ranges, and micro-cells (room sized) operating primarily indoors at millimeter wavelength frequencies. Beamforming techniques using massive MIMO (mMIMO) antenna arrays will provide uninterrupted coverage and much higher transmission efficiencies than 4G LTE produces with previous MIMO variations. 5G antenna designs will also produce more signal processing at the antennas to manage mobile device handoffs between cells.</li></ul><img class="fr-fic fr-dib" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNjA0MzQ3NTYwMDQxLTUtMDEgKDEpLmpwZyIsICJlZGl0cyI6IHsicmVzaXplIjogeyJ3aWR0aCI6IDk1MCwgImZpdCI6ICJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 788px;"><h2>5G Core Virtualizes 4G Evolved Packet Core Network Architecture</h2>To meet <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/a-forward-glance-at-5g-applying-backwards-thinking" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">5G performance specifications</a>, especially as they relate to use case flexibility, scalability, and reliability, the 5G Core network has been redesigned from the ground up in a way that completely supplants the 4G Evolved Packet Core (EPC). Whereas 4G EPC relied on physical network elements, 5G Core is a cloud-native virtualized architecture that uses multi-access edge computing to deliver network functions as services to a network&rsquo;s edge. Key features and capabilities of the 5G Core architecture include:<ul><li>Separate control plane and user plane functions. This separation and reallocation of functions previously performed by EPC service and packet gateways enable a redistribution of packet processing functions to a network&rsquo;s edge. The result is better traffic management and scalability.</li><li>Redesign of session management functions. Mobility management and session management are now performed by different network elements, and new identity and authentication functions have been added. All this improves session management to deliver uninterrupted service in various operational scenarios&mdash;for example, as user equipment is moving through a small cell network or at high speeds. These session management enhancements create a reliable service flow in complex environments that contain dense IoT arrays and user equipment with diverse data formats.</li><li>Network slicing. This technology enables 5G to offer a &ldquo;slice&rdquo; of the network as a dedicated service for a particular use case, customer, or industry. User equipment can simultaneously access multiple network slices. A network slice maintains all necessary functionality and quality across domains and technologies to efficiently allocate available resources for each use case.</li></ul><img class="fr-fic fr-dib" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjA0MzQ4NDg4ODcxLTYtMDEgKDEpIGVkaXRlZC5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 788px;"><h1>New Applications and Business Cases Possible with 5G</h1>The 5G standard enables a range of simultaneous communications that are highly reliable and optimized for use case performance and power consumption. This standard opens the door to a host of new smart services and partnerships that could not previously be accommodated on monolithic 4G networks.Recommended reading:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/5g-infrastructure-enables-new-and-radical-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">5G Infrastructure Enables New and Radical Applications</a><h2>Use Case Possibilities: Life in a 5G World</h2>To illustrate some of the possibilities in a 5G world, consider a simple example of an architect&rsquo;s commute to work one morning in her autonomous vehicle (AV). It happens that she has scheduled a conference call to take place during her commute because this was the only time her clients in Spain and her supplier in Singapore could meet.Seamless Communications The architect can carry on with her meeting as her AV navigates itself to her office. It does this by using a 5G vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communications platform for low-latency communications. The AV&rsquo;s communications platform is cloud-based and interacts with other vehicles and traffic control infrastructures, using data from sensor inputs for real-time situational awareness and navigational updates.While the AV drives, the architect reviews her project plans, then puts on her headset to enter a virtual three-dimensional (3D) conference call that uses a 5G broadband full-duplex connection. During the meeting, the AV enters a tunnel on the route to work. There is no interruption in the meeting or the vehicle&rsquo;s control systems because the tunnel is lined with small cell mMIMO antennas, which maintain a continuous contact for all communications while the vehicle is moving underground. Soon after the AV enters the tunnel, its calculated arrival time triggers a signal that turns on a coffee machine in the architect&rsquo;s office.<h1>Tasks Accomplished</h1>Despite all the activity, the meeting goes as planned. The AV arrives at its destination, locates an available parking space, parks itself, engages the electric-charging equipment, and verifies the payment account information. Thereafter, the architect walks into her office, pours a cup of hot coffee, and updates her project plans based on information her supplier in Singapore provides.This example shows how 5G technology&rsquo;s ubiquitous real-time command, control, and communications capabilities will reshape the way process control and workflows operate. It will also open the door to entirely new models. Fully entering this world, however, will still require a lot of engineering work.<h1>Engineering Challenges for 5G Components</h1>5G performance requirements combined with 5G network and device architectures are placing new demands on component design. Many design constraints are interdependent. They include:<ul><li>Processing power and throughput. Many aspects of 5G technology require more processing power, including scalable waveforms, higher data throughput, smaller cells that require complex session and handoff management, beamforming, network slicing, and higher connected device densities. More processing power requires more robust software, which in turn consumes power and generates heat.</li><li>Power consumption. Although 5G devices are expected to use power more efficiently, they will also do more work. Early base stations with MIMO antennas and prototype 5G phones will consume two to three times more power than their 4G counterparts.</li><li>Heat. More power consumption means more heat generation, which requires more heat dissipation to avoid damaging components.</li><li>Component complexity. 5G components are more complex, with more filters and amplifiers to operate at more frequencies and with more complex waveforms. This complexity introduces risks of creating larger components when space is already at a premium, especially in user equipment.</li><li>Component density and compact designs. Packing more complex components into more compact designs increases component density, which makes heat dissipation more difficult.</li></ul>These challenges can have a cascading effect of design constraints. For example, in a device like a mobile phone, if components take up more room, there is less room for a battery, so the battery must be smaller. But, if the device needs more power, smaller batteries mean less available power, which in turn means a shorter service time between charges. Many of these heat, power consumption, and component size challenges are being addressed through new techniques and materials&mdash;for example, through:<ul><li>Transceivers that employ new phase-shifting techniques&mdash;which allow more accurate beam steering, tighter beam resolution, near-zero gain variations across a large MIMO antenna array, higher data rates, and package size reductions through components that share circuit elements&mdash;eliminating the need for switches,</li><li>More efficient high-frequency power amplifiers that use gallium nitride (GaN) transistors and a variety of techniques for reducing nonlinearization when operating at less than full power, and</li><li>New techniques for developing reconfigurable and tunable wideband filters that are compact and cost-effective.</li></ul><h1>Conclusion</h1>5G communications are here, and initial deployments have already begun, but clearly a lot of engineering work remains to be done before 5G technology can deliver all the possibilities that its specification implies. Initial deployments focusing on FR1 (&lt;6GHz) will be the proving ground for new 5G systems and components going forward.This article was originally written by&nbsp;Mustafa Ergen for Mouser and substantially edited by the Wevolver team. It&#39;s the first article of a series exploring 5G. Future articles will explore how 5G differs from existing technology and how the potential of hyper-connectivity will be applied in entertainment, smart cities, and industry and how to get there.&nbsp;Article One gives <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/a-forward-glance-at-5g-applying-backwards-thinking" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">an overview of 5G.&nbsp;</a>Article Three&nbsp;discusses&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/where-does-5g-fit-in-the-connectivity-ecosystem" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">how systems engineers can evaluate the viability of 5G in the existing connectivity ecosystem.</a>Article Four <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/understanding-the-3gpp-release-15-5g-standard" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">examines the relevant standards associated with 5G.</a>Article Five&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/5g-infrastructure-enables-new-and-radical-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">showcases the radical applications 5G will enable.</a>Article Six <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/ecosystems-of-5g-engineering-infrastructure" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">looks at the ecosystems of 5G infrastructure.</a>Article Seven&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/5g-antenna-design" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">dives into 5G Antenna Designs.</a><hr><h1>About the sponsor: Mouser Electronics</h1>Mouser Electronics is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 800 industry-leading manufacturers. They specialize in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjA0MzQ4NTgwOTg1LW1vdXNlciBsb2dvIGZvb3Rlci5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 788px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">