Article #1 of Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions Series: Wi-Fi standards have come a long way since they first surfaced over two decades ago. The developments in its data transfer rates and range have led it to become the most prevalent wireless communication technology of present times.

The Evolution of Wi-Fi networks: from IEEE 802.11 to Wi-Fi 6E

This is the introductory article in a 6-part series featuring articles on Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions. The series focuses on the improvements Wi-Fi 6/6E and its applications bring to enhance the performance of the next-gen wireless networking devices. This series is sponsored by Mouser Electronics. Through the sponsorship, Mouser Electronics shares its passion for technologies that enable smarter connected applications.The objective of communication systems is to transfer information from one point to another reliably and within an acceptable time delay. But in the modern world, these are just the bare minimum requirements. Users today expect communication systems to offer gigabit speeds at low latencies. The introductory article of this new series aims to make readers familiar with the foundational terms and ideas in the world of wireless communication.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Developments in RF Communication</h2>Electromagnetic (EM) waves having a frequency between 3 kHz and 300 GHz all fall under the category of Radio Frequency (RF) signals. RF is probably the most popular and widely used means of communication via free space/wireless channels. <img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUyNTkzMDg5OTMyLTE2NTI1OTMwODk5MzIucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="electromagnetic-spectrum">Fig. 1: The electromagnetic spectrumWhile EM waves with a very short wavelength (in nanometers) like X-rays and gamma-rays have the potential to cause damage, RF waves are rather safe and are not known to have any side effects on humans. RF enables wireless communication in computers, smartphones, tablets, televisions, and a huge number of Internet of Things (IoT) devices.Guglielmo Marconi, an electrical engineer from Italy, was the first to prove the feasibility of wireless communication back in the late 1890s. Over the next couple of decades, as improvements were made in fabrication technology and large-scale circuit integration, RF equipment got smaller and more reliable. Contributions of various other scientists and engineers finally led RF communication to evolve from a rudimental messaging medium to a full-fledged high-speed data transmission medium.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Basics of RF communication</h2>All signals generated in nature are continuous or analog. They tend to be lossy and hence unfit for transmission in their natural form. To transfer them from one point to another, they need to be converted into digital signals and modulated suitably.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUyNTkzMDkwMTQ0LTE2NTI1OTMwOTAxNDQucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="RF-communication-block-diagram">Fig. 2: Block diagram of a basic RF communication systemAnalog-to-Digital converters are used to convert the analog signal available at the source into digital data. This digital signal data is then modulated by superimposing it on top of a high-frequency carrier wave. The modulated signal is transmitted via a transmitter antenna through the communication channel. While passing through the communication channel, a certain amount of noise gets added to the signal, which causes distortion in it. When the signal mixed with some noise reaches the receiver, it is demodulated, decoded, and passed through a Digital-to-Analog converter to recover the original message.On a very superficial level, the process remains more or less the same, but the hardware and the method used to actually carry out the process drastically varies between each wireless communication system.<h2 dir="ltr">Understanding RF Signal degradation</h2>The noise generated by the Internet of Things (IoT) and Industrial IoT devices has wreaked havoc with sensors and communication systems.[1] Systems emitting the radiation and the ones that are affected by it must be designed specifically to reduce the emissions and be tolerant to external radiation, respectively.Just like other EM waves, RF too exhibits some characteristic behaviors like reflection, refraction absorption, diffraction, and scattering. Due to these factors (which naturally take place in the environment sometimes), the RF signals tend to undergo a change in their frequency, wavelength, time period, phase, or maybe all of them and a few others.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUyNTkzMDkxMTMwLTE2NTI1OTMwOTExMzAucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="rf-wave-behavior-properties-scattering-reflection-diffraction-refraction-absorption">Fig. 3: Behavior and interactions of RF wavesAn important parameter to measure signal clarity is Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR). SNR, as the name suggests, is a measure of how dominant noise is in a particular signal. As the value of SNR approaches unity, the quality of the signal and the transmission increase. SNR along with Received Signal Strength&nbsp;<iframe id="66757a52af77e394067be55a" width="250" class="specs-iframe" height="440" src="https://wevolver.com/iframe/specs/advantech-wlnna-series-evaluation-kit?iframe=true" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe> Indicator (RSSI) and noise floor levels are the three parameters widely used to determine the overall quality of RF signals.<h2 dir="ltr">Towards a connected future</h2>The biggest challenge today is not about discovering new ways to increase the raw data rates. It’s all about protecting signals from degradation. Attenuation and losses that occur through the communication channel must be controlled to make use of the existing hardware to its fullest.<h2 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h2>Cutting-edge technologies that require a high-speed network connection are driving wireless data transfer needs to new heights like never before. At the same time, there is a rapid increase in the number of devices deployed in homes and industries. These factors contribute to the complexities of building the perfect wireless communication system for present times.&nbsp;This series takes you through the historical developments, challenges, enabling technologies, and some applications of RF communication. Throughout the series, the focus shall be on Wi-Fi 6/6E and the technologies enabling the latest wireless local area networking standard.&nbsp;However, references, explanations, and comparisons related to other RF communication technologies like 5G, Bluetooth®, &nbsp;Zigbee® and Matter will be added as and when needed. We’ll also share an article containing excerpts from an interview with industry pioneer Cees Links, in which we discuss where the communication industry is headed. Finally, we’ll take a look at Bulk Acoustic Wave filters and how they improve RF communication system design.This article is based on an <a href="https://www.mouser.com/news/qorvo-wifi6-app-ebook/mobile/index.html" target="_blank">e-magazine</a> published by Mouser and Qorvo. It has been substantially edited by the Wevolver team and Electrical Engineer <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/ravi.rao" target="_blank">Ravi Y Rao</a>. It's the introductory article to the Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions Series. Future articles will introduce readers to some interesting applications of the technology in various industries.<ul><li dir="ltr" id="isPasted">The introductory article <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/next-gen-wi-fi-applications-and-solutions" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">provided an overview of wireless communication and the subsequent articles of the series.&nbsp;</a></li><li dir="ltr">The first article&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-evolution-of-wi-fi-networks-from-ieee-80211-to-wi-fi-6e" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">explored the origins and the evolution of WiFi to showcase how the wireless local area networking standard improved over time.</a></li><li dir="ltr">The second article was&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-design-philosophy-behind-wi-fi-6e-recent-trends-in-wireless-networking/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">focused on recent trends and the design philosophy behind WiFi 6/6E.</a>&nbsp;The article explains why even with a marginal improvement in raw data rates, WiFi 6/6E is the biggest upgrade yet.</li><li dir="ltr">The third article dives into the technicalities of WiFi 6/6E.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/six-technologies-enabling-wi-fi-6e/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">It explains the 6 enabling technologies of WiFi 6/6E including OFDMA, BSS Coloring, TWT, Beamforming, 8X8 MU-MIMO, and 1024-QAM.</a></li><li dir="ltr">The fourth article is a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/future-of-wireless-communication-wi-fi-6e-or-5g/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">comparison between WiFi and 5G based on some of the key performance parameters.&nbsp;</a>It tries to form a perspective regarding which technology is suitable for different use cases.</li><li>The fifth article features a discussion on where the wireless communication industry is headed to. <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/the-next-generation-of-wi-fi-in-conversation-with-cees-links/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Concepts like mesh WiFi networks are explored with excerpts from an interview with Cees Links, General Manager of the Low Power Wireless Business Unit in Qorvo and one of the leading pioneers of WiFi.&nbsp;</a></li><li>The final article introduces the readers to the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/baw-filters-for-performance-improvements-in-wi-fi-5g-and-rf-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">concept, benefits, and applications of BAW filters in WiFi, 5G, and other RF communication systems designs.</a></li></ul><h2 dir="ltr">About the sponsor: Mouser Electronics</h2><a href="https://eu.mouser.com/" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a> is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 1,100 manufacturer brands. They specialize in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUyNTkzMDg5MzY4LTE2NTI1OTMwODkzNjgucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="mouser-electronics-logo"><h2 dir="ltr">References</h2>[1] Paul Pickering, ‘Factory 4.0: The Biggest Problem May Be the Noise You Can't Hear’, Mouser Electronics, [Online], Available from: &nbsp;<a href="https://www.mouser.com/applications/industry-4-0-noise/" target="_blank">https://www.mouser.com/applications/industry-4-0-noise/</a>

Introducing the Next-Gen Wi-Fi Applications and Solutions Series: Dive into the world of cutting-edge wireless communication. This new series introduces and explains the developments in Wi-Fi, 5G, and other RF technologies.

Next-gen Wi-Fi applications and Solutions

Cellular IoT is gaining momentum. The technologies LTE-M and NB-IoT are widely available as of today. 110 operators claim to have LTE-M and/or NB-IoT networks available and at least a dozen others are preparing their rollout as we speak. Over the past 14 years, LTE Cat 1 has proven itself as a good candidate for many IoT applications and led to the release of a new version of this category to make it better suitable for IoT application called: LTE Cat 1bis.While LTE-M, NB-IoT and LTE Cat 1(bis) technologies are growing in popularity, we see operators preparing the sunset of their 2G and 3G networks to reduce operational expenses and free up spectrum. In addition, public unlicensed networks don&#39;t seem to live up to their promise, looking at <a href="https://iot.eetimes.com/sigfox-files-for-bankruptcy-protection-to-survive-the-pandemic/" target="_blank">Sigfox filing for bankruptcy protection</a> and Bouygues Telecom <a href="https://objenious.com/blogpost/33947/" target="_blank">announcing</a> to shut down their public LoRaWAN network and focus on their cellular LPWAN technologies LTE-M and NB-IoT.&nbsp;When considering to start using cellular LPWAN (Low Power Wide Area Network), 2022 might be the perfect year. The technology has proven itself, networks are ready to use and hardware is widely available.<h2 dir="ltr">What do we mean with Cellular IoT?</h2>A brief history of LTE There is no such thing as an LTE standard. Instead there is a multitude of technologies that fall under the LTE umbrella. These technologies can be roughly classified into 2 groups: MBB (Mobile Broadband) and MTC (Machine Type Communication). With MBB technologies such as LTE Cat 4 and Cat 6 focussing on high data throughput and low latency, MTC aims at cutting down costs, improving link budget and reducing power consumption.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUxNTE5NDgwODIzLXdpcmVsZXNzIGV2b2x1dGlvbi5wbmciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Cellular IoT refers to MTC and allows sensors and actuators to be connected to the Internet. IoT devices require long-range connectivity (due to a large link-budget) as many devices are installed in remote and often hard to reach locations, low power consumption as most devices run on batteries for years and low cost as IoT deployments often come in large volumes.Cellular technologies designed for IoT devices are LTE Cat 1 (including Cat 1bis), LTE-M (also referred to as LTE Cat-M1 or eMTC) and NB-IoT (also called LTE Cat-NB). As of today, we see these technologies being used in smart city applications such as smart street lighting and payment terminals or points of sales. In agriculture to track livestock or precision agriculture and in the logistics industry to track valuable assets or optimize warehouse management.&nbsp;As shown in the coverage map below, large parts of Europe, North America and Oceania are already covered by LTE-M and NB-IoT technology, as well as several countries in Asia and South America. This makes asset tracking particularly interesting now that networks are widely available and goods can be tracked cross-border. In order to support LTE-M and NB-IoT, existing LTE cell towers require a software upgrade. LTE Cat 1(bis) however, is supported by all LTE infrastructure, making it a truly global standard as of today.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUxNTE5MzA5OTY0LUNvdmVyYWdlIG1hcCAyLnBuZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">LTE-M and/or NB-IoT coverage.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.gsma.com/iot/deployment-map/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Source GSMA</a><a href="https://www.gsma.com/iot/deployment-map/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"></a>Getting started with cellular IoTMonogoto allows developers to kickstart their cellular IoT journey. The Monogoto Developer program comprising multiple virtual training sessions, covers the ins-and-outs of cellular IoT and supports developers in building their next IoT project with LTE-M technology.Topics covered<ul><li dir="ltr">Fundamentals of cellular IoT</li><li dir="ltr">AT Commands</li><li dir="ltr">Power optimization using eDRX &amp; PSM</li><li dir="ltr">Integrating and acting on sensor data</li><li dir="ltr">Working with Monogoto&rsquo;s API</li><li dir="ltr">Breaking down real-life IoT use cases</li></ul><a href="https://lp.monogoto.io/developers-program-workshop-recording" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Learn more</a>

The technologies LTE-M, NB-IoT and LTE Cat 1bis are widely available as of today. 2022 might be the perfect year to kickstart your cellular IoT journey.

Cellular IoT is gaining momentum

This is the final article in a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/challenges-and-trends-in-connectivity-technologies-for-smart-manufacturing/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">6-part series</a>&nbsp;featuring the connectivity technologies that are enabling the Industrial IoT revolution. The series introduces and explains the applications of wired and wireless connectivity technologies in various industries. This series is sponsored by Mouser Electronics. Through its sponsorship,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/mouser.electronics" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a>&nbsp;shares its passion for technologies that enable the continued sustainable growth of Industrial IoT.<h2 dir="ltr">Introduction</h2>Staying connected in manufacturing facilities is crucial for efficient production and high productivity. &nbsp;Implementing M2M (Machine-to-Machine) and IIoT (Industrial Internet of Things) networks facilitates the connection that enables streamlined processes and reduced downtime while increasing automated procedures. M2M communication used in devices such as smart meters is connected with servers to ensure continuous monitoring and reflect real-time data. Facilities can use smart lighting on an automated schedule to reduce electricity costs and improve worker safety. These are just some of the hundreds of thousands of applications of M2M communication and IIoT.The one thing common between all the connected devices is the wireless antenna which brings everything together. This article explains the most common applications and performance parameters of the technology. Various characteristic plots and radiation patterns for a typical 2.4 GHz Printed Circuit Board (PCB) antenna are shown in a later section of the article.<h2 dir="ltr">Applications of wireless communication and antennas in various sectors</h2>Here is a list of some application scenarios of antennas in particular and wireless communication in general.<h3 dir="ltr">Consumer Electronics Applications</h3>Bluetooth and WiFi antennas are used to connect mobile devices and smart appliances in homes and workplaces. &nbsp;TVs, audio systems, vacuum cleaners, heating, cooling, and lighting can all be controlled from one easy-to-use, centralized hub. &nbsp;<h3 dir="ltr">Medical Applications</h3>Antennas are used for data transmission in various medical instruments. Wearable medical devices rely on embedded antennas to transmit information such as heart rate, blood pressure, oxygen levels, and time spent exercising from the wearable device to the smartphone or cloud server. This data is stored and can be related to medical providers in person or through telehealth/telemedicine to aid in diagnosis and treatment.<h3 dir="ltr">Telecommunication</h3>The cellular telecommunication market is the foundation of IoT networks and platforms. &nbsp;It allows communication in the form of voice and data to transmit from one device to another over a wireless network. The telecom industry plays a pivotal role in society as an enabling technology for various personal, economic, and business-related activities.<h3 dir="ltr">Retail Applications</h3>Retailers use IoT embedded systems across a number of applications that improve store operations such as promotions, theft prevention, inventory management, all in order to enhance the consumer&rsquo;s shopping experience. Some examples of systems utilized in retail are personalized retail marketing, staffing level indicators, cashier-less payment systems, movement tracking systems, and inventory management tools.&nbsp;<h3 dir="ltr">Smart Farming Applications</h3>Smart farming is often considered an overlooked IoT market. With the help of precision agriculture and smart farming, plantation and livestock can be managed through remotely operated machines powered by &nbsp;AI. For example, monitoring tags can be attached to animals to collect data about their health and location. Drones are also used these days for planting crops and agricultural spraying. Moisture sensors and solenoid valves are used to develop automatic irrigation systems.<h3 dir="ltr">Smart Supply Chain Applications</h3>Communication technologies with antennas in supply chains offer solutions to problems like tracking of goods while in transit and helping suppliers exchange inventory information. With an IoT-enabled system, factory equipment that contains embedded sensors monitor different parameters as per the requirement. Smart IoT systems can also process workflows and change equipment settings to optimize their performance. Antennas play an important role in receiving and transmitting these signals.<h3 dir="ltr">Smart City Applications</h3>There are a large number of smart city applications ranging from water distribution, traffic management, waste management, environmental monitoring, to security-related applications in which getting the devices connected wirelessly is a necessity. IoT solutions offered in smart cities solve various problems related to traffic, air quality, and waste management.&nbsp;<h3 dir="ltr">Automotive Applications</h3>Automotive antennas enable real-time communication with the surroundings to create a connected ecosystem. They provide consistent, accurate, and timely connectivity between the vehicle and its environment which is critical as more vehicles get autonomous functionalities. Developing stronger computing and communication technologies is the key to moving from assisted driving technologies to autonomous driving technologies.<h2 dir="ltr">Measuring the performance of PCB Antennas</h2>Several types of IoT antennas are available in the market with different working frequencies. The typical antenna band for M2M devices is about 900MHz with low power consumption and can go up to 2.4 or 5.0 GHz in other applications.&nbsp;Here is an example of the most commonly used 2.4 GHz PCB antenna to show performance, measurement settings, and use conditions. The other IoT antennas available in the market are similar and only differ in size and frequency.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQyMDk2MTU1ODEyLXJlZyAoMSkuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 1: A PCB antenna by Amphenol with an operating frequency band of 2.4GHz ~ 2.5GHz. In practice, the antenna is usually assembled near a PCB that acts as the module ground.<h3 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Antenna performance parameters and the test setup for evaluation&nbsp;<iframe id="6442689442b6bf0008cae509" width="250" class="specs-iframe" height="420" src="https://wevolver.com/iframe/specs/trinamic-tmc2210-eval-evaluation-kit?iframe=true" frameborder="0" scrolling="true" data-gtm-yt-inspected-9="true" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe></h3>A network analyzer like the Keysight E5071C can test an antenna for its return loss and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR). Both the terms are used to quantify the levels of reflected power in an antenna.&nbsp;Return loss indicates the difference between the forward and reflected power (in dB). Ideally, the value of return loss should be maximum which indicates maximum transmission. VSWR is another numerical term used to indicate how well the antennas&rsquo; impedance is matched with the line. Smaller values of VSWR are desired.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQyMDk2MjY1ODgzLXJlZyAoMykuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 2: &nbsp;Keysight E5071C network analyzerA Satimo 3D chamber can be used to test the antenna&rsquo;s efficiency and radiation pattern for various frequencies. The observations indicate how an antenna might perform and interact with the objects surrounding it.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQyMDk2MDk0NjA2LXJlZyAoMikuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 3: The Satimo 3D chamber used for testing the antenna performance parametersAs mentioned before, the antenna is usually placed near the ground, under the practical operating condition, so for performing the tests, &nbsp;the PCB itself is used as the ground.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQyMDk1MDY3MjQ4LXJlZy5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 4: Antenna test setups on PCB (left) and in free space (right) Source: Mouser/Wevolver<h3 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Antenna characteristics plots</h3>Using the test setup explained in the previous section, various plots are obtained. One can notice how the frequency response of the antenna showcases the optimal characteristics for operation near the 2.4 GHz - 2.5 GHz band which is the typical range of operation for the antenna used in testing.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQyMDk1MTM3NzEwLTE2NDIwOTUxMzc3MTAucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 5: Return loss (left) and VSWR (right) of the antenna. Source: Mouser/Amphenol<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQyMDk1MTk2MjQ4LTE2NDIwOTUxOTYyNDgucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 6: Efficiency (left) and Peak gain (right) of the antenna. Source: Mouser/Amphenol<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQyMDk1MjM2MjM4LTE2NDIwOTUyMzYyMzgucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 7: Average gain of the antenna. Source: Mouser/Amphenol<h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Radiation Patterns</h2>Radiation patterns help engineers perform a spatial analysis of the signal strength. These patterns indicate the power of the electromagnetic signals emitted by the antenna in all directions. By observing the diagrams in all three dimensions, an accurate understanding of the antenna&rsquo;s performance can be understood.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQzODI0NjQzMTQ1LTEuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 8: Radiation pattern of an antenna in free space. XZ plane, Phi=0&deg; (left), YZ plane, Phi=90&deg; (center) and XY plane, Theta = 90&deg; (right)<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQzODI0NzE3MzEyLTIuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Figure 9: Radiation pattern of an antenna on PCB ground. XZ plane, Phi=0&deg; (left), YZ plane, Phi=90&deg; (center) and XY plane, Theta = 90&deg; (right)<h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Enabling Wireless Communication in Industrial Devices with Amphenol MCP</h2><a href="https://www.mouser.com/manufacturer/amphenol-mcp/" target="_blank">Amphenol Mobile Consumer Products</a> (MCP), &nbsp;one of the world&#39;s largest, full service, custom antenna solution providers, is the designer and manufacturer of antennas used in mobile terminals with high performance, miniaturization, and quality at a low cost.&nbsp;Amphenol MCP designs and manufactures internal, external, retractable, and several other types of antennas used in platforms such as mobile devices (mobile phones, laptops, tablets, wearables), set-top boxes, gaming consoles, automobiles, M2M communication systems, and numerous IoT devices. Single and multi-band antenna solutions cover all wireless bands including USGSM, GSM, PCS, DCS, UMTS, GPS, CDMA, DVB-H, Bluetooth, WLAN, WiMAX, 802.11a, and 802.11b/g. Amphenol MCP has state-of-the-art R&amp;D facilities in Shanghai, Beijing, and Shenzhen.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h2>Connectivity technologies have a key role to play in the rapidly evolving industries. These technologies will help achieve accurate control over the industrial processes, reduce time to market, be highly scalable, and offer maximum safety. It is not just one, but an aggregation of multiple innovative cutting-edge technologies that are leading us to the next industrial revolution.&nbsp;This article was initially published by Mouser and Amphenol in an <a href="https://www.mouser.com/news/Amphenol-iiot-revolution/amphenol-Industrial-Iot-ebook.html" target="_blank">e-magazine</a>. It has been substantially edited by the Wevolver team and Electrical Engineer <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/ravi.rao" target="_blank">Ravi Y Rao</a>. It&#39;s the final article of a 6-part series that covers the applications and performance of antennas used in wireless communication.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/improved-electrical-interconnects-for-data-centers-with-higher-power-delivery-and-smaller-footprint" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Article one</a>&nbsp;explained how electrical interconnects are engineered in data centers to deliver high power in a small footprint.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/improving-hvacr-and-iaq-control-systems-with-innovative-iiot-sensors" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Article two</a> was about the sensing technologies used in Building Automation Systems<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/challenges-and-trends-in-connectivity-technologies-for-smart-manufacturing" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Article three</a> analyzed the key trends and challenges for connectivity technologies used in smart manufacturing.<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/engineering-interconnects-for-harsh-environments" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Article four</a> provided an overview of electrical interconnects for harsh environments.<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/assuring-signal-integrity-in-a-connected-construction-environment" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Article five</a> explored the connectivity technologies used at construction sites.<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/applications-and-performance-parameters-of-antennas-in-iiot/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Article six</a> examined the applications and performance parameters of antennas that enable wireless communication.<h2 dir="ltr">About the sponsor: Mouser</h2><a href="https://eu.mouser.com/" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a> is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 1,100 manufacturer brands. They specialize in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, sensors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQyMDk2MzIxMTA2LWV5SmlkV05yWlhRaU9pSjNaWFp2YkhabGNpMXdjbTlxWldOMExXbHRZV2RsY3lJc0ltdGxlU0k2SW1aeWIyRnNZUzh4TmpReU1EQXhOekEwTkRVeUxXbHRZV2RsTnk1d2JtY2lMQ0psWkdsMGN5STZleUp5WlhOcGVtVWlPbnNpZDJsa2RHZ2lPamsxTUN3aVptbDBJam9pWTI5MlpYSWlmWDE5LndlYnAiLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">

Article #6 of our Industrial IoT revolution series: Antennas are devices enabling wireless communication by interconverting electrical signals and electromagnetic waves. 

Applications and performance parameters of antennas in IIoT

This is the seventh article in an eight-part series exploring 5G. The series will explain key terms and technologies and provide an overview of current and future applications for 5G connectivity.&nbsp;The articles were originally published in an e-magazine, and have been substantially edited by Wevolver to update them and make them available on the Wevolver platform.&nbsp;This series is sponsored by Mouser, an online distributor of electronic components. Through their sponsorship, <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/mouser.electronics" target="_blank" id="isPasted">Mouser Electronics</a>&nbsp;supports a more connected future fuelled by knowledge and innovation.&nbsp;<hr><h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-4-0">Introduction</h2>The Fifth-Generation New Radio (5G NR) communications framework provides an entirely new approach to cellular communications. It supports scalable waveforms (BAD), multiple access schemes, and service multiplexing across wide bandwidths. It also supports existing services while being forward compatible with future requirements.Although 5G wireless requires more complex signal processing and the ability to handle much higher data rates than previous protocols, one of the keys to its success is antenna design. This article reviews how 5G use cases and the 5G specification are changing antenna designs and how these new designs are overcoming some of the greatest difficulties in implementing 5G networks.<h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-5-0">The 5G NR Specification and What It Means for Antenna Design</h2>5G was conceived as a <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/understanding-the-3gpp-release-15-5g-standard" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank" id="isPasted">specification</a> to deliver the following capabilities:<ul><li>Enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB) for data-intensive applications such as augmented reality (AR), three-dimensional (3D) video conferencing, two-dimensional (2D) streaming video, fixed wireless access to Internet connectivity, and other high-bandwidth applications</li><li>Massive machine-type communications (mMTC) for direct Internet of Things (IoT) connectivity on a massive scale, including high-density arrays of sensors and devices in connected cities and homes, devices for monitoring complex global supply chains, and connected devices moving at high speeds</li><li>Ultra-reliable low-latency communications (URLLC) for mission-critical, real-time applications such as industrial control systems; autonomous vehicles (AVs); and applications that require high bandwidths, high reliability, and low latencies, such as remote real-time surgeries</li></ul>Meeting these mandates requires a new spectrum. 5G wireless has been assigned a new spectrum in low and mid bands (up to 6 gigahertz [GHz]) and in high bands (with millimeter wavelengths above 24GHz). One challenge for 5G antenna designs is that some devices need to operate in multiple bands. Another is that millimeter wavelengths transmitted at cellular network power levels are subject to higher absorption by buildings, vegetation, and raindrops than low and mid bands. This limits millimeter wavelength communications to line of sight, which necessitates small cell networks that can increase chances of edge interference between cells.There are also antenna size considerations. Although higher frequencies allow smaller antennas to achieve the same level of gain, smaller antenna areas capture less energy, resulting in a shorter effective range than lower frequencies. On the other hand, an antenna with a fixed physical area increases gains for both transmissions and receptions as a frequency increases and beam width shrinks. The optimum antenna size for different implementations will balance size versus gain tradeoffs.<h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-6-0">5G Antenna Technology and Designs</h2>Meeting 5G NR objectives requires new antenna designs that use active antenna arrays to provide better coverage, reduce interference, and increase data-carrying capacity.<h3 data-element-id="headingsMap-7-0">Accommodating the Full Spectrum of 5G Frequency Ranges</h3>To operate in its full range of assigned frequencies, 5G NR uses a scalable framework that functions at frequencies between 450 megahertz (MHz) and 6GHz (frequency range 1 [FR1]) and between 24.25 and 52.6GHz (frequency range 2 [FR2]). 5G NR does this by using scalable orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (ODFM) waveforms that allow different subcarrier signal spacing to fit the various channel widths that different frequency ranges provide. Higher frequencies provide wider channels and greater subcarrier spacing. Lower frequencies use smaller channel widths and narrower subcarrier spacing. Scaling subcarrier spacing to available channel widths enables the 5G framework to operate across a broad range of frequencies. The result makes it possible to deploy 5G in existing 4G Long-Term Evolution (LTE) networks. It also makes it possible for 5G communications systems to switch between low- and high-frequency bands based on use cases or workload requirements.The challenge for antenna designers is physics. A 1GHz signal, which is in FR1, has a wavelength of about 30 centimeters (cm). A 28GHz signal in FR2 has a wavelength of 1.07mm. The same antenna will not work for these two signals, so 5G devices operating in both FR1 and FR2 bands will require at least two sets of antennas. This is manageable in large equipment and base stations that have room for multiple antenna arrays. It becomes a significant design challenge for small devices and cell phones.<h3 data-element-id="headingsMap-8-0">Device Density, Data Throughput, and Massive MIMO</h3>One challenge presented by the 5G specification is the need to support much higher densities of connected devices that are operating simultaneously at much higher data rates. This will require higher cell densities and more extensive use of the multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) antenna technologies already in use in 4G LTE networks. MIMO is an antenna array of multiple transmitting and receiving antennas (which in current LTE networks, often contains an 8 x 8 antenna array). MIMO uses spatial multiplexing to break a signal into encoded streams that it simultaneously transmits through different antennas in the array. Both the transmitting and receiving devices have multiple antennas and signal processing for encoding and decoding multiplexed signals. This makes it possible to:<h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-9-0">Communicate with multiple users and devices simultaneously.</h2><h3 data-element-id="headingsMap-10-0">Communicate with higher throughput</h3>Many variations of MIMO exist. A key variation for 5G is massive MIMO (mMIMO), an antenna design that packs many more antenna elements into a dense array than previous MIMO versions. Lower-frequency antennas are larger, which creates practical limits to how many antenna elements will fit in a reasonably sized low-frequency MIMO array. Millimeter wavelengths work with much smaller antennas, which makes it possible to build mMIMO arrays in small packages. Some manufacturers are building mMIMO antennas that contain 128 elements. By increasing the number of data streams, mMIMO increases signal capacity without requiring more spectrum, which in turn increases data rates and link reliability.<h3 data-element-id="headingsMap-11-0">Beamforming, Directionality, and User Equipment Tracking</h3>Beamforming is a method of shaping a transmission to create a well-defined antenna pattern targeted at a specific receiving antenna. It is done by adjusting phase and amplitude transmissions through different antenna elements in an array of equally spaced antennas. Beamforming can be used to reduce interference, and it also increases range by concentrating beam energy. Initial 5G deployments using midband frequencies will employ 4 x 4 or 8 x 8 MIMO antennas set up to enable beamforming, similar to what is currently available in LTE. High frequency (millimeter wavelength) 5G deployments will take advantage of adaptive arrays using larger mMIMO antennas with many more antenna elements and capable of tighter beamforming and real-time steering.5G beamforming depends on a transmitting device’s determination of the optimum signal path to its receiver. The transmitter does this by analyzing the sounding reference signals (SRSs) sent between the transmitter and the receiver, and then evaluating these signals to establish the channel state. Based on channel state information (CSI), the transmitter applies beamforming algorithms that transmit shaped radio patterns in the optimum direction and during the best schedule for the best reception. Beamforming will bounce transmissions off buildings if that is the optimum path to a receiver. In an environment where many devices use the same mMIMO channels, algorithms will time data packets to avoid packet collisions, minimizing signal interference.To avoid interference and signal interruptions, transmitters continuously track receiving equipment and recalculate optimum data paths. This enables transmission adjustments in real time to ensure consistent, uninterrupted data connections when 5G devices (for example, vehicles or cell phones) move or when objects block an optimum signal path. Beamforming is a calculation-intensive process that requires active MIMO antennas with robust signal processing capabilities.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjA3MzQ0MzU3OTU1LW1vdXNlciA2IGJlYW0uanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 788px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><h3 data-element-id="headingsMap-12-0">Downlink and Uplink Requirements</h3>The 5G specification facilitates a maximum downlink data rate that is twice the uplink data rate in given use cases. In current deployment phases below 2.6GHz, 5G requires at least a 4 x 4 downlink MIMO and recommends at least a 2 x 2 uplink MIMO.<h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-13-0">Antenna Designs for Different Use Cases</h2>5G deployments will require many antenna packages for indoor and outdoor use, small cell and macro-coverage, and many different kinds of terminal equipment. The following are some 5G antenna design considerations based on several common deployment cases.<h3 data-element-id="headingsMap-14-0">Base Stations</h3>Most cell phone towers today are highly congested. Building compact 5G antennas that integrate&nbsp;<iframe id="6621746356583edcd803e80c" width="250" class="specs-iframe" height="440" src="https://wevolver.com/iframe/specs/ezurio-sub-ghz-flexdipole-antennas?iframe=true" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</iframe> lower and higher frequencies is the most cost-effective solution. In addition, placing antennas on light poles and corners of buildings for small cell coverage will require compact designs. Several telecom operators have begun deploying small 4G cells to address bandwidth and latency issues. Early 5G deployments will involve placing 5G antennas beside existing 4G LTE antennas or installing replacement antenna units that serve as both 4G LTE and lower-frequency 5G antennas in one.Eventually, different frequency ranges will be used for different implementations. For example, some outdoor coverage in 700MHz-range macro and small-cell implementations will operate in the 3 to 5GHz range. High-bandwidth indoor and outdoor applications will likely take advantage of micro-cell architectures that use distributed antenna systems. As this higher frequency 5G rolls out, mMIMO arrays with many antenna elements will help reduce network congestion and increase base station capacity.<h3 data-element-id="headingsMap-16-0">User and Terminal Equipment</h3>Data, communication requirements, operational frequencies, and equipment design will dictate antenna designs in different 5G applications. There are many uses for 5G connected sensors and control equipment, especially in manufacturing, infrastructure monitoring and control, agriculture, and fixed wireless Internet access, to replace cable connections. Sensors and controllers optimized for low-data rates and low latencies will need to operate at specific frequencies. Fixed wireless Internet access is likely to use a combination of sub-6GHz frequencies for control plane signals and millimeter wavelengths that deliver high throughput and low latencies for end-user equipment. Other applications, such as autonomous vehicles, will have more complex requirements involving vehicle-to-anything (V2X) communications, which include low-latency control functions and high bandwidth requirements. Vehicles offer flexibility for embedding antenna arrays into the bodies of the vehicles themselves.<h3 data-element-id="headingsMap-17-0">Cell Phones</h3>Cell phones are already packed with antennas, so adding antennas to support the full range of 5G frequencies will be a challenge. These phones also have limited real estate, but they will need MIMO antennas for high-level performance and antennas located on the phones’ edges and corners that support beamforming, specifically to compensate for objects that block millimeter waves (mmWaves), like a user’s hand.<h3 data-element-id="headingsMap-18-0">The Challenges of 5G Antenna Design</h3>5G antennas have a key role to play in making 5G communications work, but they present engineering challenges. Antenna designers typically begin with antenna simulation software that, given certain assumptions, can project signal fields. But, this is only a first step.A significant challenge in 5G antenna designs is antenna testing. 5G antennas are not static, omnidirectional devices. They are active, and they beam their transmissions to specific devices. Putting a 5G antenna in a test room and applying a static test does not show how it will perform when it is simultaneously communicating with a thousand moving devices in a noisy RF environment. Most antenna designers are not sure of the most effective means to test or validate performance for devices that use mMIMO arrays. Testing methods will likely involve scenario-based automated testing.5G antenna designs are still very much a work in progress. The initial phase of the 5G deployment is just beginning, and it will involve installing low-frequency 5G to work in collaboration with 4G LTE. This is the testbed for future deployments requiring more complex antenna designs.This article was originally written by&nbsp;David Talbot for Mouser and substantially edited by the Wevolver team. It's the seventh article of a series exploring 5G. Future articles will explore how 5G differs from existing technology and how the potential of hyper-connectivity will be applied in entertainment, smart cities, and industry and how to get there.&nbsp;Article One gives <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/a-forward-glance-at-5g-applying-backwards-thinking" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">an overview of 5G.</a>Article Two&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/an-introduction-to-5g" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">introduces key terms and technologies.</a>Article Three&nbsp;discusses&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/where-does-5g-fit-in-the-connectivity-ecosystem" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank" id="isPasted">how systems engineers can evaluate the viability of 5G in the existing connectivity ecosystem.</a>Article Four <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/understanding-the-3gpp-release-15-5g-standard" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank" id="isPasted">examines the relevant standards associated with 5G.</a>Article Five <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/5g-infrastructure-enables-new-and-radical-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank" id="isPasted">showcases the radical applications 5G will enable.</a>Article Six <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/ecosystems-of-5g-engineering-infrastructure" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">looks at the ecosystems of 5G infrastructure.</a>Article Seven&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/5g-antenna-design" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank" id="isPasted">dives into 5G Antenna Designs.</a><hr><h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-19-0">About the sponsor: Mouser</h2>Mouser Electronics is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 800 industry-leading manufacturers. They specialize in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjA3MzQ0NTAzODE1LW1vdXNlciBsb2dvIGZvb3Rlci5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 788px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">

Article 7 of our 5G Series: 5G antenna design is critical to its broader success.

5G Antenna Design

This is the sixth article in an eight-part series exploring 5G. The series will explain key terms and technologies and provide an overview of current and future applications for 5G connectivity.The articles were originally published in an e-magazine, and have been substantially edited by Wevolver to update them and make them available on the Wevolver platform. This series is sponsored by Mouser, an online distributor of electronic components. Through their sponsorship, <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/mouser.electronics" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a>&nbsp;supports a more connected future fuelled by knowledge and innovation.<h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-4-0">Introduction</h2>The fifth-generation (5G) of what used to be called cellular radio is like none before it. It encompasses not just smartphones and tablets but almost everything that can benefit from being connected to other things and the Internet. For the first time, connecting businesses is as important as connecting consumers, and while mobility remains the core focus of the 5G operating environment, 5G will also serve many fixed applications. Whether catering to mobile or fixed applications, the 5G infrastructure will still need base stations—orders of magnitude more of them than currently exist—but deploying these base stations may be the most challenging task in developing a complete 5G ecosystem.<h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-5-0">Virtualization</h2>The impact of 5G on the current wireless infrastructure affects all three major use cases: Traditional mobile, called enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB); massive machine-type communications (mMTC) Internet of Things (IoT) environments; and the newest and most demanding use case, ultra-reliable low-latency communications (URLLC). Serving all three of these use cases requires a change from a hardware-based network architecture to one that’s virtual and based on network function virtualization (NFV), software-defined networking (SDN), processing and analytics at the network’s edge, network slicing, and other technologies new to the wireless infrastructure.The transition from hardware- to software-based (i.e., virtual) networks affects base stations of all sizes. The two “virtualizers” of this new paradigm—NFV and SDN—perform similar functions because they provide far greater network control using less hardware, thus reducing or eliminating changes to hardware as the network evolves. The capacity of these virtualizers also means less hardware may be necessary.<h3 data-element-id="headingsMap-6-0">Network Virtualization Using the Digital Domain</h3>The benefits of network virtualization are now being realized as virtualization empowers software to perform functions in the digital domain rather than through analog and digital hardware, as has been the case before. Still, this shift to virtualization will quite obviously require substantial computational resources, a point that has not been overlooked by Arm Limited (Arm®), an organization best known for its architectural designs for smartphones, network processors, and embedded processors.Arm’s first computing ecosystems tailored exclusively for servers and infrastructure design are the Neoverse™ series of processors. Each processor in the series includes not just a central processing unit (CPU) core but an interconnected scheme, making it possible to scale up to many cores. Neoverse processors will likely find a home at the network’s edge, where high-performance computing is increasingly becoming necessary. These processors are also well suited for 5G base stations, which will ultimately handle much more data than 4G Long-Term Evolution (LTE) networks but with greater DC power constraints.<h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-7-0">Toward Higher Spectral Efficiency</h2>An entirely different approach will be required for the technology dedicated to generating and receiving signals over the air. For example, techniques such as massive multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) that rely on digital signal processing (DSP) still need to convert the analog signal to a digital form. Fortunately, major advances are being made to address this need from lower frequencies to the microwave, and millimeter-wave regions, with semiconductors that generate and receive RF signals to and from the antennas.<h3 data-element-id="headingsMap-8-0">RF Output Power</h3>For the past two decades, base station RF power amplifiers (PAs) have used lateral double-diffused metal-oxide semiconductor (LDMOS) field-effect transistors to generate RF power in macro-base stations. This technology has advanced dramatically over the years with respect to the amount of power a single device can generate (currently, about 2 kilowatts [kW]) and use efficiently, beating every other potential competitor. But, LDMOS has a maximum useful operating frequency of about 4 gigahertz (GHz), which eliminates its use at most of the new frequencies proposed for 5G networks. The technology that will take the mantle is gallium nitride (GaN), which, in the less than 15 years it’s been commercially available, has cemented its place as the next big thing in RF power.For example, a GaN semiconductor die can produce 10 times the RF power output per unit of die than gallium arsenide (GaAs), with higher efficiency, higher-voltage operation, and superior thermal characteristics. GaN on silicon carbide (SiC) substrates offers better performance than GaN on silicon substrates, but it also costs more. This means that the latter will find a home in cost-critical small cells, where it will compete with GaAs, the predominant power semiconductor technology that has been used in smartphones for many years.At millimeter-wave frequencies, where high RF output is difficult to achieve in a solid-state device, silicon germanium (SiGe), complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS), and GaAs will be the key technologies. All these technologies, except LDMOS, will also be important for either RF power generation or receiving applications, such as low-noise amplifiers (LNAs).<h3 data-element-id="headingsMap-9-0">RF Front Ends: Packaging Functional Integration</h3>The 5G infrastructure will require that manufacturers of microwave and millimeter-wave devices increase their functional integration to reduce costs, complexity, and size and meet the needs of small cell base stations (as well as end-user devices). Packaging technology will be an essential ingredient in achieving this goal because although 4G increased the number of bands that a radio must accommodate to about 30, 5G will increase this number to 40 and perhaps more. Accommodating all these bands in a single device is unlikely, especially considering each band has different characteristics and thus requires different technologies. Nonetheless, each band segment, from sub-1GHz to millimeter wavelengths, must be as highly integrated as possible.To create these highly integrated RF devices, manufacturers of RF front ends (RFFEs) are taking a variety of approaches. Let’s see what approaches Analog Devices, Skyworks Solutions, and Qorvo are taking to fabricate products that accomplish this feat.<h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-10-0">Summary</h2>The good news for manufacturers and carriers is that all the necessary technologies to fully implement the 5G infrastructure won’t be needed all at once, so developments can continue apace as networks are deployed in the number that is essential to blanket coverage areas. Considering this flexibility in the 5G infrastructure, all signs point to 5G rolling out close to predicted timelines.Verizon™, AT&amp;T®, and T-Mobile® continue to add more and more cities to the list of where 5G wireless is available in the United States and in Europe, as of June 2020 commercial 5G has been <a href="https://5gobservatory.eu/market-developments/5g-services/" target="_blank">deployed in 14 countries</a> through service providers including Three, T-Mobile and Vodafone.This article was originally written by&nbsp;Barry Manz for Mouser and substantially edited by the Wevolver team. It's the sixth article of an eight-part series exploring 5G. Future articles will explore how 5G differs from existing technology and how the potential of hyper-connectivity will be applied in entertainment, smart cities, and industry and how to get there.&nbsp;Article One gives <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/a-forward-glance-at-5g-applying-backwards-thinking" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">an overview of 5G.&nbsp;</a>Article Two&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/an-introduction-to-5g" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">introduces key terms and technologies.&nbsp;</a>Article Three&nbsp;discusses&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/where-does-5g-fit-in-the-connectivity-ecosystem" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">how systems engineers can evaluate the viability of 5G in the existing connectivity ecosystem.</a>Article Four <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/understanding-the-3gpp-release-15-5g-standard" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">examines the relevant standards associated with 5G.</a>Article Five&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/5g-infrastructure-enables-new-and-radical-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">showcases the radical applications 5G will enable.</a>Article Seven&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/5g-antenna-design" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">dives into 5G Antenna Designs.</a><hr><h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-11-0">About the sponsor: Mouser</h2>Mouser Electronics is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 800 industry-leading manufacturers. They specialize in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjA3MzM5Njk3MDUxLW1vdXNlciBsb2dvIGZvb3Rlci5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 788px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">

Article 6 of our 5G Series: The potential of 5G can only be unlocked with a large-scale infrastructure deployment. 

Ecosystems of 5G Engineering: Infrastructure

This is the fourth article in an eight-part series exploring 5G. The series will explain key terms and technologies and provide an overview of current and future applications for 5G connectivity.

Understanding the 3GPP Release 15 5G Standard

This is the second in an eight-part series exploring 5G. The series will explain key terms and technologies and provide an overview of current and future applications for 5G connectivity.The articles were originally published in an e-magazine, and have been substantially edited by Wevolver to update them and make them available on the Wevolver platform. This series is sponsored by Mouser, an online distributor of electronic components. Through their sponsorship,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/mouser.electronics" target="_blank">Mouser Electronics</a>&nbsp;supports a more connected future fuelled by knowledge and innovation.&nbsp;<h2>Introduction</h2>The 5G mobile communications standard is designed to fulfill several performance and use case requirements currently not possible in 4G networks, including:<ul><li>Enhanced broadband that brings fiber-optic speeds and bandwidth to over-the-air (OTA) connections</li><li>Low latencies and extreme reliability for realtime OTA process control</li><li>Much higher device densities that will enable the massive Internet of Things (IoT) connectivity that is anticipated in smart cities</li><li>More energy efficiency to meet the increasing demand for low-power connectivity</li><li>High-speed adaptability for high-speed mobile applications</li><li>On-demand network scalability to meet the requirements of many industrial use cases</li></ul>Specifications outlined in 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP™) Release 15 provide details for 5G New Radio (NR), which addresses the 5G air interface, and 5G Core, which deals with network functions. Both 5G NR and 5G Core are required to meet 5G performance expectations. This article looks at how 5G differs from 4G with respect to its performance, radio access technology, and network core functions. It further reviews how 5G specifications make new applications possible and how the 5G standard impacts component designs.<h2>How Does 5G Differ from 4G?</h2><img class="fr-fic fr-dib" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNjA0MzQ3MzU5ODIyLUlsbHVzdHJhdGlvbiAwMy0wMSBlZGl0ZWQuanBnIiwgImVkaXRzIjogeyJyZXNpemUiOiB7IndpZHRoIjogOTUwLCAiZml0IjogImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 788px;">Meeting 5G’s performance expectations requires additional spectrum as well as different waveforms and a flexible framework that allows service multiplexing and more dynamic multiple access capabilities. 5G meets these requirements through a new approach to scalable waveforms that works across a range of frequencies, creating an entirely new approach to session and network management.<h3>5G NR Increases Flexibility and Reduces Overhead</h3>5G NR applies a common waveform framework that scales across a range of bandwidths. Several techniques contribute to 5G’s spectrum efficiency, flexibility, and reduced power consumption. Key differences between 5G NR and 4G Long-Term Evolution (LTE) include:<ul><li>Scalable orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (ODFM) numerology. ODFM is a widely used waveform for encoding digital communications. Its waveform numerology defines the structure and timing of information resources that the waveform carries, such as the number of subcarriers and the subcarrier spacing. Both 4G LTE and 5G NR use ODFM, but there are big differences. In 4G LTE, the numerology is always fixed; in 5G NR, the numerology is scalable for optimization in different bandwidths. This means that the subcarrier size and spacing are scalable to fit bandwidths that different frequencies provide. It also enables scalable TTI, which makes it possible to adjust latencies from very low for short-duration transmissions to longer latencies that make transmitting large data packets more efficient. Scalable ODFM numerology is the heart of 5G’s scalability and flexibility.</li><li>Self-contained subframes. Introduced in the 5G NR specification, these structures enable the inclusion of data along with their transmission acknowledgments in the same subframe, further reducing latencies. They also enable the multiplexing of different kinds of subframes, and they support blank subframes to accommodate undefined future services. Self-contained subframes can also contain beamforming data specific to a transmission, which supports multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) antenna transmissions and reduces interference.</li><li>Device-centric mobility. In LTE networks, receiving devices measure reference signals that base stations transmit to decide where to connect. Base stations transmit reference signals continuously, regardless of the presence of a receiving device—which requires processing overhead on the receiving device and excess power consumption by the transmitting equipment. In 5G transmissions, receiving devices transmit a reference signal when they need a network connection, and this reference signal triggers communication and handoff activities using appropriate transmitting equipment. This arrangement reduces power consumption and the number of reference signal broadcasts.</li><li>New cell architectures and antenna designs. To support larger numbers of connected devices, uninterrupted communications, and shorter operational ranges available from high-frequency bands, 5G will require denser cell architectures than are found in 4G LTE networks. Typical deployments could include a mix of macro-cells operating in low frequencies for wide outdoor coverage, small cells operating indoors and outdoors in mid-frequency ranges, and micro-cells (room sized) operating primarily indoors at millimeter wavelength frequencies. Beamforming techniques using massive MIMO (mMIMO) antenna arrays will provide uninterrupted coverage and much higher transmission efficiencies than 4G LTE produces with previous MIMO variations. 5G antenna designs will also produce more signal processing at the antennas to manage mobile device handoffs between cells.</li></ul><img class="fr-fic fr-dib" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNjA0MzQ3NTYwMDQxLTUtMDEgKDEpLmpwZyIsICJlZGl0cyI6IHsicmVzaXplIjogeyJ3aWR0aCI6IDk1MCwgImZpdCI6ICJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 788px;"><h3>5G Core Virtualizes 4G Evolved Packet Core Network Architecture</h3>To meet <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/a-forward-glance-at-5g-applying-backwards-thinking" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">5G performance specifications</a>, especially as they relate to use case flexibility, scalability, and reliability, the 5G Core network has been redesigned from the ground up in a way that completely supplants the 4G Evolved Packet Core (EPC). Whereas 4G EPC relied on physical network elements, 5G Core is a cloud-native virtualized architecture that uses multi-access edge computing to deliver network functions as services to a network’s edge. Key features and capabilities of the 5G Core architecture include:<ul><li>Separate control plane and user plane functions. This separation and reallocation of functions previously performed by EPC service and packet gateways enable a redistribution of packet processing functions to a network’s edge. The result is better traffic management and scalability.</li><li>Redesign of session management functions. Mobility management and session management are now performed by different network elements, and new identity and authentication functions have been added. All this improves session management to deliver uninterrupted service in various operational scenarios—for example, as user equipment is moving through a small cell network or at high speeds. These session management enhancements create a reliable service flow in complex environments that contain dense IoT arrays and user equipment with diverse data formats.</li><li>Network slicing. This technology enables 5G to offer a “slice” of the network as a dedicated service for a particular use case, customer, or industry. User equipment can simultaneously access multiple network slices. A network slice maintains all necessary functionality and quality across domains and technologies to efficiently allocate available resources for each use case.</li></ul><img class="fr-fic fr-dib" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjA0MzQ4NDg4ODcxLTYtMDEgKDEpIGVkaXRlZC5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 788px;"><h3>New Applications and Business Cases Possible with 5G</h3>The 5G standard enables a range of simultaneous communications that are highly reliable and optimized for use case performance and power consumption. This standard opens the door to a host of new smart services and partnerships that could not previously be accommodated on monolithic 4G networks.Recommended reading:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/5g-infrastructure-enables-new-and-radical-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">5G Infrastructure Enables New and Radical Applications</a><h2>Use Case Possibilities: Life in a 5G World</h2>To illustrate some of the possibilities in a 5G world, consider a simple example of an architect’s commute to work one morning in her autonomous vehicle (AV). It happens that she has scheduled a conference call to take place during her commute because this was the only time her clients in Spain and her supplier in Singapore could meet.Seamless Communications The architect can carry on with her meeting as her AV navigates itself to her office. It does this by using a 5G vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communications platform for low-latency communications. The AV’s communications platform is cloud-based and interacts with other vehicles and traffic control infrastructures, using data from sensor inputs for real-time situational awareness and navigational updates.While the AV drives, the architect reviews her project plans, then puts on her headset to enter a virtual three-dimensional (3D) conference call that uses a 5G broadband full-duplex connection. During the meeting, the AV enters a tunnel on the route to work. There is no interruption in the meeting or the vehicle’s control systems because the tunnel is lined with small cell mMIMO antennas, which maintain a continuous contact for all communications while the vehicle is moving underground. Soon after the AV enters the tunnel, its calculated arrival time triggers a signal that turns on a coffee machine in the architect’s office.<h1>Tasks Accomplished</h1>Despite all the activity, the meeting goes as planned. The AV arrives at its destination, locates an available parking space, parks itself, engages the electric-charging equipment, and verifies the payment account information. Thereafter, the architect walks into her office, pours a cup of hot coffee, and updates her project plans based on information her supplier in Singapore provides.This example shows how 5G technology’s ubiquitous real-time command, control, and communications capabilities will reshape the way process control and workflows operate. It will also open the door to entirely new models. Fully entering this world, however, will still require a lot of engineering work.<h1>Engineering Challenges for 5G Components</h1>5G performance requirements combined with 5G network and device architectures are placing new demands on component design. Many design constraints are interdependent. They include:<ul><li>Processing power and throughput. Many aspects of 5G technology require more processing power, including scalable waveforms, higher data throughput, smaller cells that require complex session and handoff management, beamforming, network slicing, and higher connected device densities. More processing power requires more robust software, which in turn consumes power and generates heat.</li><li>Power consumption. Although 5G devices are expected to use power more efficiently, they will also do more work. Early base stations with MIMO antennas and prototype 5G phones will consume two to three times more power than their 4G counterparts.</li><li>Heat. More power consumption means more heat generation, which requires more heat dissipation to avoid damaging components.</li><li>Component complexity. 5G components are more complex, with more filters and amplifiers to operate at more frequencies and with more complex waveforms. This complexity introduces risks of creating larger components when space is already at a premium, especially in user equipment.</li><li>Component density and compact designs. Packing more complex components into more compact designs increases component density, which makes heat dissipation more difficult.</li></ul>These challenges can have a cascading effect of design constraints. For example, in a device like a mobile phone, if components take up more room, there is less room for a battery, so the battery must be smaller. But, if the device needs more power, smaller batteries mean less available power, which in turn means a shorter service time between charges. Many of these heat, power consumption, and component size challenges are being addressed through new techniques and materials—for example, through:<ul><li>Transceivers that employ new phase-shifting techniques—which allow more accurate beam steering, tighter beam resolution, near-zero gain variations across a large MIMO antenna array, higher data rates, and package size reductions through components that share circuit elements—eliminating the need for switches,</li><li>More efficient high-frequency power amplifiers that use gallium nitride (GaN) transistors and a variety of techniques for reducing nonlinearization when operating at less than full power, and</li><li>New techniques for developing reconfigurable and tunable wideband filters that are compact and cost-effective.</li></ul><h2>Conclusion</h2>5G communications are here, and initial deployments have already begun, but clearly a lot of engineering work remains to be done before 5G technology can deliver all the possibilities that its specification implies. Initial deployments focusing on FR1 (&lt;6GHz) will be the proving ground for new 5G systems and components going forward.This article was originally written by&nbsp;Mustafa Ergen for Mouser and substantially edited by the Wevolver team. It's the first article of a series exploring 5G. Future articles will explore how 5G differs from existing technology and how the potential of hyper-connectivity will be applied in entertainment, smart cities, and industry and how to get there.&nbsp;Article One gives <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/a-forward-glance-at-5g-applying-backwards-thinking" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">an overview of 5G.&nbsp;</a>Article Three&nbsp;discusses&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/where-does-5g-fit-in-the-connectivity-ecosystem" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">how systems engineers can evaluate the viability of 5G in the existing connectivity ecosystem.</a>Article Four <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/understanding-the-3gpp-release-15-5g-standard" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">examines the relevant standards associated with 5G.</a>Article Five&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/5g-infrastructure-enables-new-and-radical-applications" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">showcases the radical applications 5G will enable.</a>Article Six <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/ecosystems-of-5g-engineering-infrastructure" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">looks at the ecosystems of 5G infrastructure.</a>Article Seven&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/5g-antenna-design" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">dives into 5G Antenna Designs.</a><hr><h1>About the sponsor: Mouser Electronics</h1>Mouser Electronics is a worldwide leading authorized distributor of semiconductors and electronic components for over 800 industry-leading manufacturers. They specialize in the rapid introduction of new products and technologies for design engineers and buyers. Their extensive product offering includes semiconductors, interconnects, passives, and electromechanical components.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjA0MzQ4NTgwOTg1LW1vdXNlciBsb2dvIGZvb3Rlci5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 788px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">

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