In this episode, we embark on a journey to the red planet and unveil the remarkable success of the NASA JPL MOXIE (Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment) mission on Mars.

Podcast: Breathing on Mars: MOXIE's Astounding Success

This article was discussed in our <a data-saferedirecturl="https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.wevolver.com/profile/the.next.byte&source=gmail&ust=1672821999265000&usg=AOvVaw3lLKdHdEN0YvCEsaHI7hx9" href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/the.next.byte" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Next Byte podcast</a>.&nbsp;<iframe height="200px" width="100%" frameborder="no" scrolling="no" seamless="" src="https://player.simplecast.com/95b5b321-ff01-4131-9a82-dc2417f0588b?dark=false" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe> The full article will continue below.<hr>Think about this: while we&#39;re here on Earth, a device on Mars (called MOXIE) is breathing life into our interplanetary ambitions by turning carbon dioxide into oxygen. And it&#39;s not just working; it&#39;s thriving. <h3>The minds behind the mission</h3>The team behind the Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment, colloquially known as MOXIE, was led by principal investigator Michael Hecht from MIT but also includes collaborators from Caltech as well as OxEon Energy. Stationed on NASA&#39;s Perseverance rover, which was designed and managed by NASA JPL, this compact device is making interstellar history. <h3>The drive to innovate</h3>Fundamentally speaking, there will be a massive demand for oxygen in a society that is interplanetary &ndash; it is not only required to sustain life but is also necessary for the combustion of rocket fuel. The roots of MOXIE&#39;s endeavor trace back to the persistent challenge in space exploration: resource transport. Carrying massive oxygen tanks across the vast expanse between Earth and Mars is logistically daunting and downright uneconomical. Thus, the inception of MOXIE: to negate this transportation need by producing oxygen right on the Red Planet.Fast forward to today, MOXIE hasn&#39;t just met expectations; it&#39;s exceeded them. From the time of its Martian touchdown in February 2021, the instrument has not only produced oxygen consistently, but it has also done so under varied atmospheric conditions and at different times, day and night. Its performance, irrespective of the fluctuating Martian atmosphere, stands as a testament to its engineering excellence. <h3>MOXIE&#39;s breathtaking success</h3>Between its start-up in February 2021 and September 2023, MOXIE accumulated a total output of 122 grams of oxygen. At maximum operational capacity, the system produced 12 grams of oxygen each hour, achieving a purity level of 98% or higher. The consistent target was six grams of oxygen per hour, a rate comparable to the oxygen output of a standard terrestrial tree.&nbsp;MOXIE matched or exceeded both its purity and volume targets during this experiment.Impressively, MOXIE&#39;s oxygen production was also consistent across Mars&#39; intense seasonal variation. Because of vast differences in temperature between seasons, Mars&#39; atmospheric density can vary up to twofold throughout the year, which presents a dynamic environment for MOXIE&#39;s oxygen production. <h3>The secret sauce behind MOXIE</h3>The wizardry of MOXIE is both fascinating and profoundly technical, ingeniously designed to work under the highly variable Martian conditions.MOXIE begins its operations by first drawing in carbon dioxide-rich Martian air, which is filtered to rid contaminants. The air is subsequently pressurized and channeled through the Solid OXide Electrolyzer (SOXE), which was developed by OxEon Energy. SOXE electrochemically dissects the air into oxygen ions and carbon monoxide. The oxygen ions are skillfully isolated and recombined, resulting in molecular oxygen, or O2. Before releasing it back into the Martian atmosphere (alongside carbon monoxide and other gases), MOXIE conducts tests to determine whether the oxygen&#39;s quantity and purity meet the mark.&nbsp; <img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjk1MjQ1NDc0MjM3LTY0OTBfTWFycy0yMDIwLU5BU0EtTU9YSUUtQ2FyYm9uLU94eWdlbi1mdWxsMi5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 518px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">NASA/JPL-CaltechFurthermore, accommodating MOXIE&#39;s function within the Perseverance rover&#39;s busy schedule demanded adaptability. Designed to operate intermittently, MOXIE&#39;s performance during various times of the Martian day and throughout diverse seasons showed its resilience. While full-scale versions of MOXIE are envisioned to run continually, the current design&#39;s episodic functioning has demonstrated robustness against potential wear and tear. <h3>Beyond the experiment</h3>Following MOXIE&#39;s success, the research group still sees lots of future work on the horizon for in-situ oxygen production, including designing a future full-scale system that is designed to run nonstop (the current system is designed to operate only in short bursts). The ultimate goal is to a dispatch larger version of MOXIE to Mars and allow it to produce and store up large quantities of oxygen to support future missions.All in all, this isn&#39;t just a technological win; it&#39;s a game-changer. MOXIE&#39;s proven ability to transform plentiful Martian carbon dioxide into oxygen means the dream of return flights from Mars &ndash; and perhaps eventual manned exploration &ndash; &nbsp;is a significant step closer. MOXIE has not just created oxygen but also started paving the path for humanity&#39;s next big interplanetary leap.

MOXIE successfully turned Martian carbon dioxide into usable oxygen – a monumental achievement with even bigger implications for the future of space exploration 


Breathtaking Success on Mars: MOXIE Experiment Delivers as Promised

<div data-mesh-id="comp-llgao0tzinlineContent" data-testid="inline-content"><div data-mesh-id="comp-llgao0tzinlineContent-gridContainer" data-testid="mesh-container-content"><div data-testid="richTextElement">Pushing the boundaries of space technology requires innovative thinking and the right tools for the job.The Scientific Workgroup for Rocketry and Spaceflight (<a href="https://warr.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WARR)</a> at the Technical University of Munich launched their cryogenic rocket 12.7 kilometers above the earth. See how the group transformed &ldquo;Project Cryosphere&rdquo; from an idea to a reality with critical parts made by <a href="http://www.makerverse.ai" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">MakerVerse</a>. <img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjkyNzcyMDEwOTc5LVJvY2tldCBpbiBmbGlnaHQuSlBHIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Project Cyrosphere successfully takes off. Photo credit: Matthew Swenson.<div data-testid="richTextElement" id="isPasted"><h3>The challenge: Blasting Off to 11 Kilometers</h3></div><div data-testid="richTextElement">Since its foundation in 1962, WARR has been no stranger to ambitious space-related projects. Within that group is WARR Rocketry, whose student members come from all backgrounds ranging from mechanical engineering to business.The team&rsquo;s previous altitude record was 4 kilometers. With Project Cyrosphere, they wanted to go far beyond. WARR knew they needed an impeccable design and perfect parts to achieve that goal. One of the significant challenges is the extreme conditions that the rocket would undertake. The 135-kilogram rocket would travel 3.5 times the speed of sound, undergoing intense strain until reaching the apogee. Every part must be precisely manufactured to handle severe heat and cold.Furthermore, the student group faced tight deadlines to complete the rocket in time for the scheduled launch in California (US).<div data-testid="richTextElement" id="isPasted"><h3>The solutions: MakerVerse for the Universe</h3><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjkyNzcyNDQyMjQzLVdBUlIgcGFydHMgKEFwcHJvdmVkKSAoNCkucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The interior and exterior of the aluminum critical connectors made by MakerVerse. They&#39;re attached to carbon fiber.</div><div data-testid="richTextElement">WARR&rsquo;s rocket is made largely of carbon fiber, as this material combines strength with reduced weight. For the crucial connector interfaces, which connect the carbon fiber with the cryogenic tank and the upper segments of the rocket, WARR turned to MakerVerse.With MakerVerse&rsquo;s<a href="https://app.makerverse.ai/quote/upload" target="_self" rel="noreferrer noopener">&nbsp;on-demand manufacturing platform</a>, WARR gained access to the full range of manufacturing technologies and materials. In this case, <a href="https://www.makerverse.ai/cnc" target="_self" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNC machining&nbsp;</a>created these aluminum connectors to exact specifications. Considering the delicacy and difficult conditions, MakerVerse&rsquo;s attention to detail was critical.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjkyNzcyMjIwOTA1LVdBUlIgcGFydHMgKEFwcHJvdmVkKSAoMikucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 427px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The assembled structure.Throughout the process, MakerVerse provided very clear pricing and communications, which helped ensure all lead time expectations were met.<div data-testid="richTextElement" id="isPasted"><h3>The results: Reaching for the Stars</h3></div><div data-testid="richTextElement">With the successful launch of its cryogenic rocket WARR, gained invaluable date on supersonic flight and the performance of the hardware. This data will be put to use for other projects. The team already has other ambitious projects planned for the near future, including innovative new rocket designs. For these projects, WARR plans to work with MakerVerse again using a combination of additive manufacturing, CNC machining, and other technologies as needed.&ldquo;MakerVerse was a great partner for our manufacturing projects,&rdquo; said Francesco Longhetti, Head of WARR Rocketry. &ldquo;They helped save us a lot of time.&rdquo;</div></div></div></div></div></div>

See how the student group from Technical University of Munich reached an altitude of nearly 13 kilometers with their rocket launched in the US.  Some key components were made by MakerVerse, the on-demand manufacturing platform for industrial-quality parts. 

WARR Launches Cryogenic Rocket with Machined Parts

Engineering Space is an in-depth documentary series that unveils the new generation of space technologies and the people and companies developing them. Engineers and entrepreneurs are democratizing access to space. Our goal is to enable you to understand the cutting-edge, be inspired, and discover practical insights to apply to your own engineering endeavors.In the first episode of Engineering Space we meet two engineers from Pittsburgh-based Astrobotic; Principal Mechanical Engineer Kerry Quinn and Lead Software Engineer Taylor Whitaker. The space company aims to make space missions feasible and more affordable for science, exploration, and commerce. They define themselves as a lunar logistics company, intending to provide end-to-end delivery services for payloads to the Moon.Astrobotic works out of the largest private facility in the world dedicated to lunar logistics. In this impressive 47,000-square-foot complex, The company builds and operates its lines of landers, rovers, autonomous spacecraft navigation systems, and other space technologies. Once operational, payloads will be controlled directly from the Astrobotic Mission Control Center inside their headquarters located in the heart of Pittsburgh&rsquo;s North Side.<h2 dir="ltr">Developing lightweight moon rovers</h2>The team is developing two rovers specifically for Moon exploration. The CubeRover&reg; is a super-light modular vehicle designed to provide affordable mobility for scientific instruments and other payloads to operate on the surface of the Moon. Because CubeRover&reg; can be as light as just four kilograms &mdash; it can contribute to reduced flight costs, making the Moon more accessible. &nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjgzNjIzNTg3MTUwLVJvdmVyMi5wbmciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The Astrorobotics CubeRover&reg;. Image credit: Astrobotics.The Polaris rover was designed to accommodate diverse lunar payloads with distinct mission profiles, like lunar regolith digging or water ice harvesting. Polaris can support up to 90 kg of payload mass, traverse long distances, and provide direct-to-Earth (DTE) communication. Companies, governments, universities, non-profits, and individuals can send payloads to the Moon on Polaris for $4.5M per kilogram of payload. For every kilogram of payload, Astrobotic can provide 0.5 W of continuous power and 10 kbps of bandwidth.In this episode of Engineering Space, we follow along with Astrobotic engineers as they do mobility testing on the engineering model of their CubeRover&reg;. It&#39;s the first time the team has tested the rover with its MLI (Multilayer Insulation) and electronics package. The testing will compare the engineering model with other models in development.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Mimicking the Moon&#39;s surface</h2>Testing rovers intended for the moon requires the careful creation of an environment that resembles the moon&#39;s surface as closely as possible. The tests are conducted in their test pit of lunar regolith, a material that mimics the fine powdery material covering the moon. Almost all of the moon&#39;s surface is covered in this fine, white powdery material, with only small areas of hard bedrock on the walls of very steep moon craters.&nbsp;Regolith materials are developed by NASA or other space companies. For example, the majority of the regolith used in the Astrobotic testing is made by the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/home/index.html" target="_blank">Glenn Research Center</a>. The regolith, known as GRC-1[1] is made from four kinds of quartz silica.&nbsp;Lunar regolith has compactibility properties[2], which means when it is agitated, it dilates or becomes lower in volume as the small particles fall between the larger particles. You can imagine this clearly by thinking of a container of flour that compacts when you tap it on a table. This is also how the iconic astronaut footprints were formed on the Moon.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjgzNjIyMzQwNzUzLTEwLmpwZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The rover prototype during testing in the lunar regolith material.This quality of the regolith means that the lightweight rovers developed by Astrobotic are expected to sink down slightly when they are on the moon, rather than moving across its surface like a small rover would on sand on Earth.&nbsp;To mimic the moon without simulating in zero gravity, super lightweight versions of the rovers are developed that account for the difference in gravitational acceleration. Lunar gravitational acceleration is 1.62 m/s^2 (meters per second squared) while Earth&rsquo;s gravitational acceleration is 9.807 m/s^2 (meters per second squared). &nbsp;The moon rover weighs about 6 kg, so the testing version weighs just 1 kg.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Design of a lunar rover wheel that sinks and turns&nbsp;</h2>The moon surface tests enable the Astrobotic engineering team to look at each aspect of the rover, including its grip on the lunar regolith and the way it traverses different types of terrain, such as flat, ascents, and descents.&nbsp;A really critical part of the rover is the design of its wheels. They must be lightweight, robust to the extreme temperatures of the moon as well as suitable for the fine, flour-like conditions of the lunar surface. The Astrobotic rover has been tested with multiple types of wheels, sizes, widths, and materials.The current design of the wheel is fairly narrow, with regular perforations and grousers (protrusions similar to those on a tank) that allow the rover to move through the powdery surface. This design also enables the rover to complete movements such as figure-eights without the rover having a complex drive system such as articulated directional steering that would add extra weight.&nbsp;The engineering model of the rover being tested is reserved for special testing as it&#39;s the closest prototype to the finished product. To protect the high-value prototype, simultaneous testing happens on other simpler versions of the rover. These tests are often specific to a single task such as hill climbing.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjgzNjIyMzgzODgzLTUuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The perforations and trousers enable the rover to navigate the soft terrain.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">A mission to make the moon accessible</h2>Astrobotic was founded in 2007 and currently has more than 130 employees. It has won several large contracts from NASA and has critical missions with the space agency planned. In addition to the rovers described above, Astrobotic has developed moon landers, a moon power grid, and vision technology.&nbsp;The company&#39;s first mission is set to be the first commercial mission to land on another planetary body. The Peregrine Rover will land on the Gruithuisen Domes of the moon and deliver a range of scientific instruments, technologies, mementos, and other payloads from six different countries, dozens of science teams, and hundreds of individuals. The date of the mission will be announced shortly.&nbsp;In 2024, Astrobotic will undertake the Griffin Mission One (GM1) &nbsp;to the Lunar South Pole. It will deliver NASA&rsquo;s Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover (VIPER). Griffin will land at the South Pole and deploy VIPER to conduct the first widespread ground truth measurements of lunar water ice. Such ice may one day be used for life support and propellant that could assist future deep space explorers. Some of the instruments on PM1 will be operated as a dress rehearsal for their use on VIPER. This GM1 contract was awarded under the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/commercial-lunar-payload-services" target="_blank">NASA Commercial Lunar Payload Services &nbsp;(CLPS) &nbsp;initiative.&nbsp;</a><h2 dir="ltr">Learn more about cutting-edge space companies and technologies</h2>The Engineering Space documenatry series is a collaboration between engineering community platform Wevolver, and two independent Californian filmmakers and producers; <a href="https://flipbirdfilms.com/" target="_blank">Flipbird Films</a> and Green Run Productions. This first episode is sponsored by <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/duro" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Duro</a>, which develops Product Lifecycle Management software for hardware engineering teams.<blockquote><blockquote>Having previously worked at SpaceX, I know how tough it can be to create technology that can withstand the harsh environment of space. We&#39;re proud to sponsor this Engineering Space episode and help inspire engineers everywhere!</blockquote></blockquote><blockquote><blockquote>Kellan O&#39;Connor, COO and Co-founder of Duro </blockquote></blockquote>Sign up below to get updates when a new &#39;Engineering Space&#39; episode gets released!<iframe src="https://c8056756.sibforms.com/serve/MUIEALrRLDzuUm9n0ZOf8rXFzimkYs9rS_nCzav7CGHGM8USNRBoKa4J5jwLh7jPqbBt7DQ-iIzGhsx_wFSBXNb4KPhpppkyJ93mD2PZJvl1pMCE9zXvsMc7hBtlPYgaIBDpec1zdrmpcCW6xuqC94Suy4YcAasZMu8t7DxX1EoakY6Xqdk8WBelkzJyrbq88OKqzHv_8A0UDOlT" scrolling="auto" allowfullscreen="" style="display: block;margin-left: auto;margin-right: auto;max-width: 100%;" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" width="540" height="305" frameborder="0"></iframe> <h2 dir="ltr">References</h2>1. Oravec HA, Zeng X, Asnani VM. Design and characterization of GRC-1: A soil for Lunar Terramechanics testing in earth-ambient conditions [Internet]. Pergamon; 2010 [cited 2023 May 9]. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022489810000388&nbsp;2. Oravec HA, Zeng X, Asnani VM. Design and characterization of GRC-1: A soil for Lunar Terramechanics testing in earth-ambient conditions [Internet]. Pergamon; 2010 [cited 2023 May 9]. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022489810000388

Space startup Astrobotic mimics the moon's surface material and tests various designs of new moon rovers.

Engineering Space. Episode 1: Developing lightweight rovers for lunar surface exploration

COWVR, at center, and TEMPEST, not shown, were installed aboard the International Space Station in late 2021 and since then have provided valuable weather data to forecasters tracking tropical cyclones. The two instruments are part of the U.S. Space Force STP-H8 demonstration mission. Credit: NASA

In this episode, we talk about a new satellite system from NASA that leverages technologies used in other missions to accomplish the same performance that has been delivered by heritage satellites but smaller and less complex while also being a fraction of the cost.

Podcast: Eye of The Storm: NASA's New Weather & Tropical Storm Tracking Sensors

In places across the U.S., tree cover is shrinking &ndash; forests are burned by wildfires on the West Coast and drowned by rising sea levels along the East. From the ground, it&rsquo;s hard to assess the scale of the losses and the effects disappearing trees have on atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and climate change.NASA research scientist Jon Ranson is working to improve new technologies for studying trees from above, so future Earth-observing missions can more accurately assess forest health.&ldquo;Trees do a huge service for the planet, in terms of sequestering carbon dioxide, taking it out of the atmosphere and putting it into wood,&rdquo; Ranson said, &ldquo;but trees are very sensitive to our changing climate. We&rsquo;re trying to see the changes going on in forest ecosystems. If you detect things early enough, you might be able to do something about it.&rdquo;When measured from aircraft and satellites, the wavelengths of light reflected by plants tell scientists about the amount of photosynthesis occurring, and therefore how much atmospheric carbon dioxide trees take up and store. The current standard for studying vegetation is called NDVI, or Normalized Differential Vegetation Index, which is the average of two broad portions of the infrared spectrum. NASA&rsquo;s NDVI record goes back 40 years, providing a low-resolution but accurate picture of forest health.While NDVI is good at assessing vegetation quantity and vigor broadly, Ranson said, breaking down infrared and visible light into many more wavelengths, a technology called hyperspectral imaging, can provide insight on plants&rsquo; water content, chlorophyll and even changes in health. &nbsp;<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1679491783339-mlbs_landscape2+%281%29.jpg" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">In the Mountain Lake region near Blacksburg, VA, a National Ecological Observatory Network tower contains CO2 sensors that can help validate measurements taken by aircraft or satellites. Credits: Courtesy Jon Ranson&ldquo;Vegetation has these broad spectral properties,&rdquo; said Ian Adams, Earth Sciences Division Technologist at NASA&rsquo;s Goddard Space Flight Center. &ldquo;With hyperspectral imaging, you get lots of different measurements at smaller, closer together frequencies. There is a lot more information we can pull out if we can get better spectral resolution.&rdquo;By dramatically increasing the number of frequencies available for researchers to study, Ranson&rsquo;s work serves the priorities of the National Academies of Science&rsquo;s most recent Earth Science decadal survey, which determines the field&rsquo;s long-term priorities. The survey lists &ldquo;surface topography and vegetation,&rdquo; including forests, as a key area of study in need of more advanced technology.&nbsp;&ldquo;Strategically for NASA, and more broadly for the remote sensing community, hyperspectral is one of the areas we see as the future,&rdquo; Adams said.To make use of hyperspectral imaging by future orbital missions, data analysis techniques are first proven closer to the ground.Ranson&rsquo;s team fitted a Skyfish drone (UAV) from partner institution Virginia Tech with a visible and infrared (VIS/IR) hyperspectral camera and lidar equipment. They flew the imaging equipment over forests near Blacksburg, VA, in a region called Mountain Lake. Comparing their UAV observations with actual CO2 levels recorded by sensors on a nearby National Ecological Observatory Network tower, Ranson&rsquo;s team was able to refine calculations about how much carbon the forest removed from the atmosphere.These comparisons allowed them to further refine techniques for interpreting the hyperspectral data. For instance, Plants stressed by too much sunlight may release pigments to shield their chloroplasts, a condition his sensors can detect. If plants get too much shade, they may grow leaves with larger surface-areas, which can cause the sensor to overestimate plant productivity. Ranson wants to add short-wave infrared sensors to better distinguish reflections from leaves and other parts of plants, eliminating another possible source of error.<h2>The view from space: Seeing the forest for the trees</h2>Ranson&rsquo;s goal is to study forests on a global scale from space.&ldquo;We&rsquo;re trying to get the complete picture,&rdquo; Ranson said. &ldquo;So that when we go to space, we know how to find the answer to the question, &lsquo;Are our forests healthy? And if not, why not?&rsquo;&rdquo;Scientists and engineers at Goddard have been developing a mission concept called Concurrent Artificially intelligent Spectrometry and Adaptive Lidar System, or CASALS. If selected, CASALS would send a satellite with lidar and hyperspectral cameras into space. A constellation of such satellites could take the frequent measurements necessary to assess changes in forest productivity over time, using models perfected by Ranson&rsquo;s UAV flights.&ldquo;Forests take up as much carbon as the ocean does, yet forests cover only 9 percent of Earth&rsquo;s surface,&rdquo; said Ranson. &ldquo;So, if something goes wrong with our forests, it&rsquo;s a dramatic issue. We&rsquo;ve got this great, great resource in forests, and we need to care for them so they&rsquo;ll care for us.&rdquo;

In places across the U.S., tree cover is shrinking – forests are burned by wildfires on the West Coast and drowned by rising sea levels along the East. From the ground, it’s hard to assess the scale of the losses and the effects disappearing trees have on atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and climate change.

NASA To Measure Forest Health from Above

This article was discussed in our <a data-saferedirecturl="https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.wevolver.com/profile/the.next.byte&source=gmail&ust=1672821999265000&usg=AOvVaw3lLKdHdEN0YvCEsaHI7hx9" href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/the.next.byte" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Next Byte podcast</a>.&nbsp;<iframe height="200px" width="100%" frameborder="no" scrolling="no" seamless="" src="https://player.simplecast.com/788c4555-efa4-44a6-84d8-cf9cd503de92?dark=false" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe> The full article will continue below.<hr>NASA recently built two weather instruments to test the potential of small, low-cost sensors to do some of the work of bulkier, pricier satellites. Both instruments have exceeded expectations as trial runs, and they are already delivering useful forecast information for the most devastating of storms, tropical cyclones.Launched in late 2021 to the International Space Station, <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/5-things-to-know-about-a-pair-of-small-but-mighty-weather-instruments" target="_blank">COWVR</a> (short for Compact Ocean Wind Vector Radiometer) measures the speed and direction of wind at the ocean surface, and TEMPEST (Temporal Experiment for Storms and Tropical Systems) provides atmospheric water vapor measurements. Both instruments are part of Space Test Program-Houston 8 (STP-H8), a three-year demonstration mission funded by the U.S. Space Force, which also funded the construction of COWVR. TEMPEST was built by NASA as a flight spare for a prior mission, and Space Force repurposed it for STP-H8.Imagery created from their data is being used by the U.S. <a href="https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/jtwc.html" target="_blank">Joint Typhoon Warning Center</a> to track the location and intensity of tropical cyclones in the Indian and Pacific oceans. In fact, COWVR and TEMPEST images were among the sources used by a forecaster at the typhoon center in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, to pin down the location of Tropical Cyclone Mandous, which roiled the Bay of Bengal off southern India in December 2022.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjc3NjI5NTA1NjI3LWpwZWdQSUEyNTU2NS5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 768px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Data from the COWVR and TEMPEST instruments aboard the ISS was used to create this image of Tropical Cyclone Mandous, which forecasters used to understand the December 2022 storm&#39;s intensity and predict its path toward southern India.&nbsp; Credit: U.S. Joint Typhoon Warning Center/U.S. Naval Research LaboratoryFor several months, images based on COWVR and TEMPEST data have been delivered to the center by the Monterey, California-based Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), which has been working with NASA to calibrate the instruments and validate their data. Storm forecasters have been trying out the imagery &ndash; evaluating how it affects predictions and comparing it with other data sources &ndash; said Brian Strahl, the center&rsquo;s director.Reliable, frequently updated information on storm structure and location, wind speed, and humidity is crucial to the center&rsquo;s mission to track tropical cyclones between Africa&rsquo;s east coast and the west coast of the Americas, an area that includes vast expanses of open ocean.&ldquo;It&rsquo;s challenging outside of the continental U.S. &ndash; where you don&rsquo;t have weather aircraft routinely flying &ndash; to give a really good ground-truth of where these storms are, so we&rsquo;re reliant on satellites,&rdquo; Strahl said. &ldquo;Any new additions of good quality data, which we believe these are, can be very useful.&rdquo;<h2 data-block-key="8jorb">Smaller, Less Costly</h2>COWVR and TEMPEST both measure microwave emissions from Earth&rsquo;s atmosphere and surface. Data from microwave readings have an advantage over those from infrared or visible light: They can give forecasters a look at the internal structure of a tropical cyclone and help them locate the eye, even if it&rsquo;s obscured by clouds.The idea for the mission emerged a decade ago as the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) started considering the next generation of instruments that could replace sensors such as WindSat, a DoD weather radiometer that operated until 2020.COWVR incorporates technology and designs developed at NASA&rsquo;s Jet Propulsion Laboratory for the agency&rsquo;s Jason series of ocean-observing satellites. With Jason, engineers had to correct for the presence of atmospheric water vapor when measuring sea surface height. With COWVR, the water vapor and how it moves are the focus.Larger weather radiometers are often built with spinning dishes to enable broader coverage than that provided by an instrument that points straight down. COWVR also uses a rotating dish, but JPL engineers managed to simplify the instrument&rsquo;s design, making it more power-efficient without compromising its capabilities.Around the size of a minifridge, the instrument weighs about 130 pounds (60 kilograms) and requires about 47 watts to run &ndash; approximately the same power demand as an actual minifridge. WindSat, by comparison, weighed 990 pounds (450 kilograms) and used 350 watts. COWVR&rsquo;s design and construction budget was $24 million, roughly one-fifth the cost of WindSat.TEMPEST was a flight spare left over from NASA&rsquo;s 2018&nbsp;<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/temporal-experiment-for-storms-and-tropical-systems-demonstration-tempest-d" target="_blank">TEMPEST-D mission</a>. About the size of a cereal box, it weighs roughly 8 pounds (4 kilograms), draws 6.5 watts of power, and had a budget of less than $2 million. TEMPEST-D was a CubeSat demonstration led by researchers from Colorado State University, JPL, and Blue Canyon Technologies.&ldquo;NASA developed these instruments to be compact and simple, without many moving parts, and using technology that has matured over the decades,&rdquo; said Shannon Brown, principal investigator for COWVR at JPL. &ldquo;We are now seeing that instruments like that can perform as well as the more expensive operational sensors.&rdquo;Separate from STP-H8, NASA also is exploring the use of data from COWVR and TEMPEST, as well as small satellites like them, for its own weather-related missions.<h2 data-block-key="2u9ui">What&rsquo;s Next</h2>The Naval Research Laboratory has sent data from COWVR and TEMPEST to the U.S. National Hurricane Center, where forecasters have started to evaluate it. And the Joint Typhoon Warning Center intends to take a closer look at COWVR&rsquo;s surface wind speed and direction data &ndash; not just the imagery &ndash; to see if it improves tropical cyclone forecasts.The Naval Research Laboratory also continues to evaluate raw data from COWVR and TEMPEST for use in the U.S. Navy&rsquo;s global numerical weather models.&ldquo;These are critical behind-the-scenes efforts that enable us to feel confident using measurements from these new instruments,&rdquo; said Steve Swadley, NRL&rsquo;s lead for calibration and validation of data from spaceborne microwave sensors. &ldquo;So far, it looks really, really good, so that&rsquo;s exciting.&rdquo;

Known as COWVR and TEMPEST, the duo is demonstrating that smaller, less expensive science instruments can play an important role in weather forecasting.

Dynamic NASA-Built Weather Sensors Enlisted to Track Tropical Cyclones

The German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum f&uuml;r Luft- und Raumfahrt; DLR) is currently working with <a href="https://www.uarx.com/" target="_blank" title="External link UARX Space">UARX</a> Space to develop a specialised spacecraft that will transport multiple satellites to different desired orbits after separation from the launch vehicle. DLR is providing a radio platform called Generic Software Defined Radio (GSDR), which is used to communicate with the ground station. GSDR is a multifunctional radio system that allows multiple applications to performed in different frequency bands. The hardware does not have to be adapted to the application-specific requirements, as is usually the case, but can be reconfigured via software and commands while in orbit.<h2>Planned mission in 2024</h2>In commercial spaceflight, one launch vehicle typically delivers several satellites into the same fixed target orbit to save costs. As a result, certain users must wait a long time for a launch vehicle that will fly to their target orbit or face the prohibitive cost of booking a rocket for their sole use. The Orbit Solutions to Simplify Injection and Exploration (<a href="https://www.uarx.com/projects/ossie.php" target="_blank" title="External link OSSIE">OSSIE</a>) orbit transfer vehicle from UARX Space is being developed with the aim of carrying satellites deployed in space to their desired target orbit, regardless of the initial deployment orbit of the launch vehicle. This places considerable demands on communication between the spacecraft and the ground segment, as the radio communication distance varies greatly throughout the mission.The GSDR, developed by DLR, will be used as the communication subsystem, as this innovative radio platform is ideally suited to OSSIE&#39;s needs and can respond flexibly to the varying communication requirements. &quot;After more than five years of development and extensive testing, our GSDR has now reached a technology readiness level (TRL) of 7. The next step is to demonstrate the system in orbit. We are delighted that our system will contribute to UARX&#39;s mission and help us harness OSSIE&#39;s full potential,&quot; says Jan Budroweit, Project Manager at DLR.OSSIE is a cost-effective Orbital Transfer Vehicle (OTV) designed to deploy customer payloads that require transport to specific orbits. To accomplish a controlled deployment, the vehicle is commanded to conduct precise manoeuvres that change its orbital parameters. During these manoeuvres, constant communication with the ground segment is often very important. OSSIE is also capable of carrying orbital demonstrators that allow customers to test their hardware without being deployed into orbit. During such a flight, the payload receives all required services, such as power and communications, from the OSSIE platform.UARX Space already has customers for OSSIE&#39;s demonstration mission, which is planned for mid-2024, and during which the capabilities of the spacecraft will be validated in preparation for more complex missions. &quot;Counting on the support of DLR to handle such complex communication scenarios is essential to ensure we can offer the best quality of service to our customers,&quot; says Andr&eacute;s Villa, CTO at UARX Space.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1676889026224-ossie-laboratory.jpg" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Lab&shy;o&shy;ra&shy;to&shy;ry test&shy;ing of Gener&shy;ic Soft&shy;ware De&shy;fined Ra&shy;dio (GS&shy;DR) at the DLR site in Bre&shy;men. Credit: &copy; DLR. All rights reserved&nbsp;<h2>A modular, reusable radio system</h2>GSDR is designed to be easy to reuse and adapt from mission to mission. Its advanced technology enables high-performance data processing and extreme flexibility for rapid development and reconfiguration. Mission-specific features are primarily implemented through software customisation.GSDR can operate in different frequency bands without any need to adapt the hardware. This allows various applications &ndash; including communication between the ground station and the spacecraft and the reception of aircraft signals &ndash; to be implemented within a single system. This saves space and weight, which in turn reduces costs, particularly for space missions. Due to its compact design and low power consumption, the platform is especially well suited to operation with small satellites. Ensuring reliability under space conditions was a priority during the development of the GSDR. The system has been specifically designed and extensively tested to handle the effects of radiation and guarantee a high level of reliability and operational availability. The GSDR currently has a TRL of 7, so it is certified with respect to critical environmental influences such as thermal and mechanical factors and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC).

The OSSIE space­craft from UARX Space fea­tur­ing DLR ra­dio tech­nol­o­gy. Credit: DLR (CC BY-NC-ND 3.0)

The German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt; DLR) is currently working with UARX Space to develop a specialised spacecraft that will transport multiple satellites to different desired orbits after separation from the launch vehicle.

The future of small satellite transfer orbits

Spacecraft and mission hardware designed by an artificial intelligence may resemble bones left by some alien species, but they weigh less, tolerate higher structural loads, and require a fraction of the time parts designed by humans take to develop.&ldquo;They look somewhat alien and weird,&rdquo; Research Engineer Ryan McClelland said, &ldquo;but once you see them in function, it really makes sense.&rdquo;McClelland pioneered the design of specialized, one-off parts using commercially available AI software at NASA&rsquo;s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, producing hardware he has dubbed evolved structures.To create these parts, a computer-assisted design (CAD) specialist starts with the mission&rsquo;s requirements and draws in the surfaces where the part connects to the instrument or spacecraft &ndash; as well any bolts and fittings for electronics and other hardware. The designer might also need to block out a path so that the algorithm doesn&rsquo;t block a laser beam or optical sensor. Finally, more complex builds might require spaces for technicians&rsquo; hands to maneuver for assembly and alignment.Once all off-limits areas are defined, the AI connects the dots, McClelland said, producing complex structure designs in as little as an hour or two. &ldquo;The algorithms do need a human eye,&rdquo; he said. &ldquo;Human intuition knows what looks right, but left to itself, the algorithm can sometimes make structures too thin.&quot;These evolved structures save up to two-thirds of the weight compared to traditional&nbsp;components, he said, and can be milled by commercial vendors. &ldquo;You can perform the design, analysis and fabrication of a prototype part, and have it in hand in as little as one week,&rdquo; McClelland said. &ldquo;It can be radically fast compared with how we&rsquo;re used to working.&rdquo;Parts are also analyzed using NASA-standard validation software and processes to identify potential points of failure, McClelland said. &ldquo;We found it actually lowers risk. After these stress analyses, we find the parts generated by the algorithm don&rsquo;t have the stress concentrations that you have with human designs. The stress factors are almost ten times lower than parts produced by an expert human.&rdquo;McClelland&rsquo;s evolved components have been adopted by NASA missions in different stages of design and construction, including astrophysics balloon observatories, Earth-atmosphere scanners, planetary instruments, space weather monitors, space telescopes, and even the Mars Sample Return mission.Goddard physicist Peter Nagler turned to evolved structures to help develop the EXoplanet Climate Infrared TElescope (EXCITE) mission, a balloon-borne telescope developed to study hot Jupiter-type exoplanets orbiting other stars. Currently under construction and testing, EXCITE plans to use a near-infrared spectrograph to perform continuous observations of each planet&#39;s orbit about its host star.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1676543284461-excite.jpg" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">yan McClelland designed an aluminum scaffold for the back of the EXCITE telescope, which is planned to make a test flight as early as Fall of 2023. The curved, criss-crossed reinforcing structures were designed to resist significant off-centered forces. Credits: Henry Dennis&ldquo;We have a couple of areas with very tricky design requirements,&rdquo; Nagler said. &ldquo;There were combinations of specific interfaces and exacting load specifications that were proving to be a challenge for our designers.&rdquo;McClelland designed a titanium scaffold for the back of the EXCITE telescope, where the IR receiver housed inside an aluminum cryogenic chamber connects to a carbon fiber plate supporting the primary mirror. &ldquo;These materials have very different thermal expansion properties,&rdquo; Nagler said. &ldquo;We had to have an interface between them that won&rsquo;t stress either material.&rdquo;A long-duration NASA Super-Pressure Balloon will loft the EXCITE mission&rsquo;s SUV-sized payload, with an engineering test flight planned as early as fall of 2023.<h2>Ideal Design Solution for NASA&rsquo;s Custom Parts</h2>AI-assisted design is a growing industry, with everything from equipment parts to entire car and motorcycle chassis being developed by computers.The use case for NASA is particularly strong, McClelland said.&ldquo;If you&rsquo;re a motorcycle or car company,&rdquo; McClelland said, &ldquo;there may be only one chassis design that you&rsquo;re going to produce, and then you&rsquo;ll manufacture a bunch of them. Here at NASA, we make thousands of bespoke parts every year.&rdquo;3D printing with resins and metals will unlock the future of AI-assisted design, he said, enabling larger components such as structural trusses, complex systems that move or unfold, or advanced precision optics. &ldquo;These techniques could enable NASA and commercial partners to build larger components in orbit that would not otherwise fit in a standard launch vehicle, they could even facilitate construction on the Moon or Mars using materials found in those locations.&rdquo;Merging AI, 3D printing or additive manufacturing, and in-situ resource utilization will advance In-space Servicing, Assembly, and Manufacturing (ISAM) capabilities. ISAM is a key priority for U.S. space infrastructure development as defined by the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy&rsquo;s&nbsp;<a data-lf-fd-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/04-2022-ISAM-National-Strategy-Final.pdf" target="_blank">ISAM National Strategy</a> and&nbsp;<a data-lf-fd-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/NATIONAL-ISAM-IMPLEMENTATION-PLAN.pdf" target="_blank">ISAM Implementation Plan</a>.This work is supported by the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/innovation_fund/index.html" target="_blank">Center Innovation Fund</a> in NASA&#39;s Space Technology Mission Directorate as well as Goddard&rsquo;s Internal Research and Development (IRAD) program.

Defined by a human designer, and filled in by an artificial intelligence program, this scaffold was milled from a solid block of aluminum and features connections for mirrors and instruments as well as pathways preserved for laser light and human hands to attach and adjust sensors. Credit: Henry Dennis

Spacecraft and mission hardware designed by an artificial intelligence may resemble bones left by some alien species, but they weigh less, tolerate higher structural loads, and require a fraction of the time parts designed by humans take to develop.

NASA Turns to AI to Design Mission Hardware

In this episode, we talk about how a group of researchers at the University of Michigan have gained a thrust output 10x greater than what was thought to be possible by challenging preconceived limitations and how their breakthrough could hold the key for deep space travel.&nbsp;<iframe height="200px" width="100%" frameborder="no" scrolling="no" seamless="" src="https://player.simplecast.com/7186eb06-8962-46c9-b8e9-52a754f7cdb3?dark=false" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe><hr><h3 id="isPasted">EPISODE NOTES</h3>(2:20) - <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/plasma-thrusters-used-on-satellites-could-be-much-more-powerful" target="_blank">Ultra-efficient Plasma Thrusters For Deep Space Travel</a><hr>As always, you can find these and other interesting &amp; impactful engineering articles on Wevolver.com.To learn more about this show, please visit our&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/the.next.byte" target="_blank">shows page</a>. By following the page, you will get automatic updates by email when a new show is published. Be sure to give us a follow and review on&nbsp;<a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/nl/podcast/the-next-byte/id1548255861?l=en" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Apple</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/6lPPsRtegnivsRUEsQ09R7?si=IPMiah7xT_apJtPjqvXMlA" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Spotify</a>, and most of your favorite podcast platforms!

The glow of the plasma from the H9 MUSCLE Hall thruster during a test with krypton propellant. PHOTO: Plasmadynamic and Electric Propulsion Laboratory. 

In this episode, we talk about how a group of researchers at the University of Michigan have gained a thrust output 10x greater than what was thought to be possible by challenging preconceived limitations and how their breakthrough could hold the key for deep space travel.

Podcast: From Blastoff to Beyond: Ion Thrusters Pushing the Limits of Space Travel

This article was discussed in our&nbsp;<a data-saferedirecturl="https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.wevolver.com/profile/the.next.byte&source=gmail&ust=1672821999265000&usg=AOvVaw3lLKdHdEN0YvCEsaHI7hx9" href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/the.next.byte" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Next Byte podcast</a>.&nbsp;<iframe height="200px" width="100%" frameborder="no" scrolling="no" seamless="" src="https://player.simplecast.com/7186eb06-8962-46c9-b8e9-52a754f7cdb3?dark=false" class="fr-draggable" data-gtm-yt-inspected-7="true" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe> The full article will continue below.<hr>It was believed that Hall thrusters, an efficient kind of electric propulsion widely used in orbit, need to be large to produce a lot of thrust. Now, a new study from the University of Michigan suggests that smaller Hall thrusters can generate much more thrust&mdash;potentially making them candidates for interplanetary missions. &nbsp;<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jM_wcsTQxek?&wmode=opaque&rel=0&enablejsapi=1&origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-gtm-yt-inspected-7="true" id="636557646" title="Advances in Thruster Technology Lead the Way to Mars"></iframe>&ldquo;People had previously thought that you could only push a certain amount of current through a thruster area, which in turn translates directly into how much force or thrust you can generate per unit area,&rdquo; said <a href="https://aero.engin.umich.edu/people/jorns-benjamin/" rel="noreferrer noopener" target="_blank">Benjamin Jorns</a>, U-M associate professor of aerospace engineering who led the new Hall thruster study to be presented at the <a href="https://www.aiaa.org/SciTech" rel="noreferrer noopener" target="_blank">AIAA SciTech Forum</a> in National Harbor, Maryland, today.His team challenged this limit by running a 9 kilowatt Hall thruster up to 45 kilowatts, maintaining roughly 80% of its nominal efficiency. This increased the amount of force generated per unit area by almost a factor of 10.Whether we call it a plasma thruster or an ion drive, electric propulsion is our best bet for interplanetary travel&mdash;but science is at a crossroads. While Hall thrusters are a well-proven technology, an alternative concept, known as a magnetoplasmadynamic thruster, promises to pack much more power into smaller engines. However, they are yet unproven in many ways, including lifetime.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjc0ODI4MDcxNDAzLTUyNjQ1NDUzODI5XzM2NGYwMjQ4N2Jfay0xMDI0eDY1NS5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The team at the PEPL lab poses for a photo near the new Hall thruster. Leanne Su, lead author of the study, kneels with a print of the mission patch. From left in the back: Christopher Sercel, Thomas Marks, Madison Allen, Parker Roberts, Will Hurley, Benjamin Jorns (U-M associate professor of aerospace engineering and senior author of the study) and and Tate Gill. PHOTO: Marcin Szczepanski/Michigan Engineering&nbsp;Hall thrusters were believed to be unable to compete because of the way they operate. The propellant, typically a noble gas like xenon, moves through a cylindrical channel where it is accelerated by a powerful electric field. It generates thrust in the forward direction as it departs out the back. But before the propellant can be accelerated, it needs to lose some electrons to give it a positive charge.Electrons accelerated by a magnetic field to run in a ring around that channel&mdash;described as a &ldquo;buzz saw&rdquo; by Jorns&mdash;knock electrons off the propellant atoms and turn them into positively charged ions. However, calculations suggested that if a Hall thruster tried to drive more propellant through the engine, the electrons whizzing in a ring would get knocked out of the formation, breaking down that &ldquo;buzz saw&rdquo; function.&nbsp;&ldquo;It&rsquo;s like trying to bite off more than you can chew,&rdquo; Jorns said. &ldquo;The buzz saw can&rsquo;t work its way through that much material.&rdquo;In addition, the engine would get extremely hot. Jorns&rsquo; team put these beliefs to the test.&nbsp;&ldquo;We named our thruster the H9 MUSCLE because essentially, we took the H9 thruster and made a muscle car out of it by turning it up to 11&mdash;really up to a hundred, if we&rsquo;re going by accurate scaling,&rdquo; said Leanne Su, a doctoral student in aerospace engineering who will present the study.They tackled the heat problem by cooling it with water, which let them see how big a problem the buzz saw breakdown was going to be. Turns out, it wasn&rsquo;t much trouble. Running with xenon, the conventional propellant, the H9 MUSCLE ran up to 37.5 kilowatts, with an overall efficiency of about 49%, not far off the 62% efficiency at its design power of 9 kilowatts.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjc0ODI4MDk2MDA3LXBsYXNtYS10aHJ1c3RlcnMtdXNlZC53ZWJwIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The glow of the plasma from the H9 MUSCLE Hall thruster during a test with krypton propellant. PHOTO: Plasmadynamic and Electric Propulsion Laboratory.&nbsp;Running with krypton, a lighter gas, they maxed out their power supply at 45 kilowatts. At an overall efficiency of 51%, they achieved their maximum thrust of about 1.8 Newtons, on par with the much larger 100-kilowatt-class X3 Hall thruster.&nbsp;&ldquo;This is kind of a crazy result because typically, krypton performs a lot worse than xenon on Hall thrusters. So it&rsquo;s very cool and an interesting path forward to see that we can actually improve krypton&rsquo;s performance relative to xenon by increasing the thruster current density,&rdquo; Su said.Nested Hall thrusters like the X3&mdash;also developed in part by U-M&mdash;have been explored for interplanetary cargo transport, but they are much larger and heavier, making it difficult for them to transport humans. Now, ordinary Hall thrusters are back on the table for crewed journeys.Jorns says that the cooling problem would need a space-worthy solution if Hall thrusters are to run at these high powers. Still, he is optimistic that individual thrusters could run at 100 to 200 kilowatts, arranged into arrays that provide a megawatt&rsquo;s worth of thrust. This could enable crewed missions to reach Mars even on the far side of the sun, traveling a distance of 250 million miles.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjc0ODI4MTE1NTA3LTUyNjQ1NjczOTgzXzBiNTcxNTU4ZGFfay0xMDI0eDY4My5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Ph.D student Will Hurley leaves the chamber where the new Hall plasma thruster is tested at the PEPL lab. PHOTO: Marcin Szczepanski/Michigan Engineering&nbsp;The team hopes to pursue the cooling problem as well as challenges in developing both Hall thrusters and magnetoplasmadynamic thrusters on Earth, where few facilities can test Mars-mission-level thrusters. The amount of propellant exhausting from the thruster comes too fast for the vacuum pumps to keep the conditions inside the testing chamber space-like.The research was supported in part by the Joint Advanced Propulsion Institute.

It was believed that running more propellant through a Hall thruster would wreck its efficiency, but new experiments suggest they might power a crewed mission to Mars.

Plasma thrusters used on satellites could be much more powerful

Ever since the first close-up picture of Mars captured in 1965, the hazy and pink world has revealed its mysterious veil. The pace of human exploration of the unknown universe has never stopped. Over the past decades, we have discovered that today&rsquo;s Martian wasteland hints at a once active world where volcanoes raged, and flash floods rushed over the land. Was there life on Mars? If Mars ever had life, there&rsquo;s a chance that the Martian soil may still contain traces. Space Concordia&rsquo;s Robotics Division of Concordia University focuses on building strong and intelligent rovers able to operate in harsh desert conditions, perform a variety of tasks with a mobile arm, and perform onboard experiments to detect signs of life in soil. The Division was formed as an engineering final project in 2012. Over the years, the Robotics Division has focused on different parts of the rover, from the multipurpose arm, to the mobile platform, to onboard science experiments, finally culminating in the current design. The team is dedicated to developing competitive projects within the domain of aerospace robotics.&nbsp;<h2>Project Background of Mars Rover</h2><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1673007791525-1673007791525.png" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The Mars rover that would act as an astronaut assistant for Mars exploration missions. The rover is designed as a mobile platform capable of housing three modules: a robotic manipulator, a scientific analysis module and an autonomous driving unit. RPWORLD is delighted to provide high quality and quick-turnaround customized parts, which would be used for the arm of robotic manipulator.&nbsp;<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1673007823016-1673007823016.png" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><h2>Material Chosen </h2><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1673007906926-1673007906926.png" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">At RPWORLD, we stock 30+ production-grade plastic and metal materials that are suitable for various part applications and industries, and our engineering team will provide materials selection recommendations that match the diverse needs. In this case, we fully considered about the applications of rover robotic manipulator, using aluminum alloy for its light weight and great rigidity. In addition, the material offers high tensile strength and corrosion resistance. Those contribute to minimizing the parts size and weight for the arm and also having reasonable cost.&nbsp;<h2>Manufatacturing Process</h2>At RPWORLD, the advanced 3-, 4- and 5-axis CNC machines combining with automatic robot arm, offer great capability in quicker turnaround and tighter tolerance, and meet DIN ISO2768 medium (fine). This is perfect for the low-volume parts of rover robotic manipulator made of metal materials and required high precision. The engineering team took it seriously as every order, and soon got parts machined with automatic precision CNC machines. The high-quality parts were well-received by customer. We deeply understand that the recognition has never been accidental, the stability and consistency of high quality contribute to the current popularity of RPWORLD.&nbsp;<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1673007939642-1673007939642.png" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1673007974461-1673007974461.png" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">

Ever since the first close-up picture of Mars captured in 1965, the hazy and pink world has revealed its mysterious veil. The pace of human exploration of the unknown universe has never stopped. Over the past decades, we have discovered that today’s Martian wasteland hints at a once active world where volcanoes raged, and flash floods rushed over the land.

Looking for Signs of Life on Mars-Case Study of Mars Rover Development

UPDATE: The Transporter-6 mission successfully launched at 6:55 a.m. PT on January 3.<hr>In January 2023, the Caltech Space Solar Power Project (SSPP) <a href="https://www.spacelaunchschedule.com/launch/falcon-9-block-5-transporter-6-dedicated-sso-rideshare/" target="_blank">is poised to launch into orbit a prototype</a>, dubbed the Space Solar Power Demonstrator (SSPD), which will test several key components of an ambitious plan to harvest solar power in space and beam the energy back to Earth.Space solar power provides a way to tap into the practically unlimited supply of solar energy in outer space, where the energy is constantly available without being subjected to the cycles of day and night, seasons, and cloud cover.The launch, currently slated for early January, represents a major milestone in the project and promises to make what was once science fiction a reality. When fully realized, SSPP will deploy a constellation of modular spacecraft that collect sunlight, transform it into electricity, then wirelessly transmit that electricity over long distances wherever it is needed&mdash;including to places that currently have no access to reliable power.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1672821351016-Integration_of_DOLCE_onto_Vigoride_2332.max-1400x800.jpg" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Engineers carefully lower the DOLCE portion of the Space Solar Power Demonstrator onto the Vigoride spacecraft built by Momentus. Credit: Caltech/Space Solar Power ProjectA <a href="https://momentus.space/" target="_blank">Momentus Vigoride spacecraft</a> carried aboard a SpaceX rocket on the Transporter-6 mission will carry the 50-kilogram SSPD to space. It consists of three main experiments, each tasked with testing a different key technology of the project:<ul><li data-block-key="4v183">DOLCE (Deployable on-Orbit ultraLight Composite Experiment): A structure measuring 6 feet by 6 feet that demonstrates the architecture, packaging scheme and deployment mechanisms of the modular spacecraft that would eventually make up a kilometer-scale constellation forming a power station;</li><li data-block-key="8kq7v">ALBA: A collection of 32 different types of photovoltaic (PV) cells, to enable an assessment of the types of cells that are the most effective in the punishing environment of space;</li><li data-block-key="73f6">MAPLE (Microwave Array for Power-transfer Low-orbit Experiment): An array of flexible lightweight microwave power transmitters with precise timing control focusing the power selectively on two different receivers to demonstrate wireless power transmission at distance in space.</li></ul>An additional fourth component of SSPD is a box of electronics that interfaces with the Vigoride computer and controls the three experiments.<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/c2mgpMy-_mU?&wmode=opaque&rel=0&enablejsapi=1&origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe>SSPP <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/caltech-announces-breakthrough-100-million-gift-to-fund-space-based-solar-power-project" target="_blank">got its start in 2011 after philanthropist Donald Bren</a>, chairman of Irvine Company and a lifetime member of the Caltech Board of Trustees, learned about the potential for space-based solar energy manufacturing in <a href="https://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2011-06/satellites-could-gather-energy-sun-and-beam-it-down-earth/" target="_blank">an article in the magazine Popular Science</a>. Intrigued by the potential for space solar power, Bren approached Caltech&#39;s then-president Jean-Lou Chameau to discuss the creation of a space-based solar power research project. In 2013, Bren and his wife, Brigitte Bren, a Caltech trustee, agreed to make the donation to fund the project. The first of the donations to Caltech (which will eventually exceed $100 million in support for the project and endowed professorships) was made that year through the Donald Bren Foundation, and the research began.&quot;For many years, I&#39;ve dreamed about how space-based solar power could solve some of humanity&#39;s most urgent challenges,&quot; Bren says. &quot;Today, I&#39;m thrilled to be supporting Caltech&#39;s brilliant scientists as they race to make that dream a reality.&quot;The rocket will take approximately 10 minutes to reach its desired altitude. The Momentus spacecraft will then be deployed from the rocket into orbit. The Caltech team on Earth plans to start running their experiments on the SSPD within a few weeks of the launch.Some elements of the test will be conducted quickly. &quot;We plan to command the deployment of DOLCE within days of getting access to SSPD from Momentus. We should know right away if DOLCE works,&quot; says Sergio Pellegrino, Caltech&#39;s Joyce and Kent Kresa Professor of Aerospace and Professor of Civil Engineering and co-director of SSPP. Pellegrino is also a senior research scientist at JPL, which Caltech manages for NASA.&nbsp;<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/w5SBF48WqV4?&wmode=opaque&rel=0&enablejsapi=1&origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe>Other elements will require more time. The collection of photovoltaics will need up to six months of testing to give new insights into what types of photovoltaic technology will be best for this application. MAPLE involves a series of experiments, from an initial function verification to an evaluation of the performance of the system under different environments over time. Meanwhile, two cameras on deployable booms mounted on DOLCE and additional cameras on the electronics box will monitor the experiment&#39;s progress, and stream a feed back down to Earth. The SSPP team hopes that they will have a full assessment of the SSPD&#39;s performance within a few months of the launch.Numerous challenges remain: nothing about conducting an experiment in space&mdash;from the launch to the deployment of the spacecraft to the operation of the SSPD&mdash;is guaranteed. But regardless of what happens, the sheer ability to create a space-worthy prototype represents a significant achievement by the SSPP team.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1672821509975-Caltech_Sergio_Harry_Ali_5687.max-1400x800.jpg" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">(L to R) Sergio Pellegrino, Harry Atwater, and Ali Hajimiri, the principal investigators of the Space Solar Power Project. Credit: Caltech&quot;No matter what happens, this prototype is a major step forward,&quot; says Ali Hajimiri, Caltech&#39;s Bren Professor of Electrical Engineering and Medical Engineering and co-director of SSPP. &quot;It works here on Earth, and has passed the rigorous steps required of anything launched into space. There are still many risks, but having gone through the whole process has taught us valuable lessons. We believe the space experiments will provide us with plenty of additional useful information that will guide the project as we continue to move forward.&quot;Although solar cells have existed on Earth since the late 1800s and currently generate about 4 percent of the world&#39;s electricity (in addition to powering the International Space Station), everything about solar power generation and transmission needed to be rethought for use on a large scale in space. Solar panels are bulky and heavy, making them expensive to launch, and they need extensive wiring to transmit power. To overcome these challenges, the SSPP team has had to envision and create new technologies, architectures, materials, and structures for a system that is capable of the practical realization of space solar power, while being light enough to be cost-effective for bulk deployment in space, and strong enough to withstand the punishing space environment.&quot;DOLCE demonstrates a new architecture for solar-powered spacecraft and phased antenna arrays. It exploits the latest generation of ultrathin composite materials to achieve unprecedented packaging efficiency and flexibility. With the further advances that we have already started to work on, we anticipate applications to a variety of future space missions,&quot; Pellegrino says.&quot;The entire flexible MAPLE array, as well as its core wireless power transfer electronic chips and transmitting elements, have been designed from scratch. This wasn&#39;t made from items you can buy because they didn&#39;t even exist. This fundamental rethinking of the system from the ground up is essential to realize scalable solutions for SSPP,&quot; Hajimiri says.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1672821544489-Hajimiri_Ali-SSPP-3065.max-1400x800.jpg" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The prototype antenna sheet for the power transmitter array that demonstrates the unit&#39;s flexibility. Each orange square on the yellow tile is an antenna to be driven by a single transmitter. Credit: Lance Hayashida/CaltechThe entire set of three prototypes within the SSPD was envisioned, designed, built, and tested by a team of about 35 individuals. &quot;This was accomplished with a smaller team and significantly fewer resources than what would be available in an industrial, rather than academic, setting. The highly talented team of individuals on our team has made it possible to achieve this,&quot; says Hajimiri.Those individuals, however&mdash;a collection of graduate students, postdocs, and research scientists&mdash;now represent the cutting edge in the burgeoning space solar power field. &quot;We&#39;re creating the next generation of space engineers,&quot; says SSPP researcher Harry A. Atwater, Caltech&#39;s Otis Booth Leadership Chair of the Division of Engineering and Applied Science and the Howard Hughes Professor of Applied Physics and Materials Science, and director of the Liquid Sunlight Alliance, a research institute dedicated to using sunlight to make liquid products that could be used for industrial chemicals, fuels, and building materials or products.Success or failure from the three testbeds will be measured in a variety of ways. The most important test for DOLCE is that the structure completely deploys from its folded-up configuration into its open configuration. For ALBA, a successful test will provide an assessment of which photovoltaic cells operate with maximum efficiency and resiliency. MAPLE&#39;s goal is to demonstrate selective free-space power transmission to different specific targets on demand.&quot;Many times, we asked colleagues at JPL and in the Southern California space industry for advice about the design and test procedures that are used to develop successful missions. We tried to reduce the risk of failure, even though the development of entirely new technologies is inherently a risky process,&quot; says Pellegrino.SSPP aims to ultimately produce a global supply of affordable, renewable, clean energy. More about SSPP can be found on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.spacesolar.caltech.edu/" target="_blank">the program&#39;s website</a>.

In January 2023, the Caltech Space Solar Power Project (SSPP) is poised to launch into orbit a prototype, dubbed the Space Solar Power Demonstrator (SSPD), which will test several key components of an ambitious plan to harvest solar power in space and beam the energy back to Earth.

Caltech to Launch Space Solar Power Technology Demo into Orbit in January

In this episode, we talk about a microsatellite from MIT that is testing autonomous flight while in Earth&#39;s orbit. This technology could help improve the agility and robustness of future satellite missions.&nbsp;<iframe height="200px" width="100%" frameborder="no" scrolling="no" seamless="" src="https://player.simplecast.com/aaa85b2e-2890-4d4e-9a19-fb7d81fd42b6?dark=false" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe><hr>This podcast is sponsored by <a href="https://www.durolabs.co/?utm_source=Wevolver&utm_medium=podcast&utm_campaign=the_next_byte" id="isPasted" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Duro</a>. &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1672193846860-eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjY1NDI0NjIyNDYwLVVudGl0bGVkIGRlc2lnbi5wbmciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19.webp" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"><hr><h3 id="isPasted">EPISODE NOTES</h3>(5:10) - <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/tiny-satellite-tests-autonomy-in-space" target="_blank">Tiny satellite tests autonomy in space</a><hr>This episode was brought to you by Duro, the PLM platform behind some of Farbod &amp; Daniel&rsquo;s favorite hardware products!Click <a href="https://www.durolabs.co/?utm_source=Wevolver&utm_medium=podcast&utm_campaign=the_next_byte" target="_blank">here</a> to learn more about Duro and <a href="https://www.durolabs.co/blog/former-spacex-engineer-breaks-down-the-code-to-successful-hardware-engineering/?utm_source=Wevolver&utm_medium=podcast&utm_campaign=TheNextByte" target="_blank">here</a> to check out the article written by Duro&rsquo;s co-founder, Kellan O&#39;Connor, on his early experience at SpaceX and how that helped him crack the code to successful hardware engineering.&nbsp;<hr>As always, you can find these and other interesting &amp; impactful engineering articles on Wevolver.com.To learn more about this show, please visit our <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/profile/the.next.byte" target="_blank">shows page</a>. By following the page, you will get automatic updates by email when a new show is published. Be sure to give us a follow and review on <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/nl/podcast/the-next-byte/id1548255861?l=en" target="_blank">Apple</a>, <a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/6lPPsRtegnivsRUEsQ09R7?si=IPMiah7xT_apJtPjqvXMlA" target="_blank">Spotify</a>, and most of your favorite podcast platforms!

The SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket launched in May 2022 carried multiple missions, including Lincoln Laboratory’s Agile MicroSat. Photo courtesy of SpaceX

In this episode, we talk about a microsatellite from MIT that is testing autonomous flight while in Earth's orbit. This technology could help improve the agility and robustness of future satellite missions.

Podcast: Self-Flying Satellite's Successful Space Mission

Now, researchers have drawn inspiration from the art of origami to create programmable surfaces that allow engineers to alter physical properties of a uniform substance across a range of directions. In an <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/adma.202270298" id="isPasted" target="_blank">article</a> published in the Oct. 26 issue of the journal Advanced Materials, the researchers described structures that are also programmable, so dimensions and corresponding properties can shift as needed. The researchers hope that designers will be able to apply the techniques to medical devices, architecture, robotics and aerospace.&nbsp;<iframe src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/763946476" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" style="width: 767px; height: 426px;"></iframe>&ldquo;We have an almost infinite number of adjustments, which provide a rich design space,&rdquo; said <a href="https://engineering.princeton.edu/faculty/glaucio-paulino" target="_blank">Glaucio Paulino</a>, the Margareta Engman Augustine Professor of Engineering and one of the principal researchers. Paulino, a professor of <a href="https://cee.princeton.edu/" target="_blank">civil and environmental engineering</a> and the <a href="https://materials.princeton.edu/" target="_blank">Princeton Institute for the Science and Technology of Materials</a>, worked with colleagues from the Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Peking University, the University of Tokyo and the University of Trento on the project.To create the structures, the researchers began with cells of four kite-shaped figures known as rhombuses; each rhombus is connected to two others along two sides, with a tail end of each rhombus free. The connecting sides are hinged in some special ways, so each cell can click through a variety of forms, from a wide basket to thin folds. (See the corresponding video for more information.) The researchers combine many of these cells to create a wide range of surfaces.By adjusting cells, the researchers can change the properties of the entire surface: Among the options, they can vary compressibility, flexibility and density. Because individual cells are adjustable, the researchers can vary properties within the surface and can easily change and adjust the properties.&ldquo;Usually, a single origami pattern has one specific mechanical property,&rdquo; said Tomohiro Tachi, one of the researchers and a professor at the University of Tokyo. &ldquo;This structure can switch between multiple states that have distinct properties. It is a universal module for programming and reprogramming materials with versatile properties.&rdquo;<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1667567538078-ezgif-5-b724cd5624.gif" style="width: 766px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">By adjusting individual cells, the researchers can change the properties of the entire surface. Animation by Muza Productions&nbsp;Each cell demonstrates three stable states, meaning they will hold the position once clicked into it. This feature is useful for engineers seeking to use the origami patterns in applications because it allows for greater control of structures. It also allows designers to use the techniques without needing to add supports for the structures as their orientation changes. For example, a designer could adjust a series of cells to make a surface more flexible in one area and be confident that the cells would hold this position without requiring additional support.&ldquo;What we observed experimentally is a real tri-stable structure because the stable states can be determined by the &lsquo;click&rsquo; sound it emits when it snaps among the different configurations,&rdquo; said Diego Misseroni, a professor at the University of Trento and a member of the research team.The technique takes advantage of a phenomenon that physicists call frustration. In geometry, frustration is a feature that stops a pattern from propagating across a wide space &mdash; like a jagged rock in a snowfield. With the adjustable cells, the researchers can introduce frustration into structures. They use this to change the properties of the surface. They can do so over wide areas and small spots.&ldquo;A frustration is a kind of engineered defect, a defect by design,&rdquo; Paulino said. &ldquo;If a defect is arbitrary, it is usually bad. But if we can engineer it, we can use it in a way that is interesting.&rdquo;Co-researcher Ke Liu said he was pleased by the ability to turn a defect into an engineering advantage.&ldquo;A defect by design is no longer a defective flaw,&rdquo; said Liu, a professor at Peking University. &ldquo;In this work, we use the magic of origami to create a material whose defects can be programmed through geometric frustration.&rdquo;The researchers can use these engineered frustrations to precisely change the patterns of the surface. By changing the patterns, they can adjust the surface&rsquo;s properties.&ldquo;A frustration line changes the density, or the alignment, or the composition of the material. This changes the material&rsquo;s properties, and we can take advantage of that,&rdquo; Paulino said.Paulino said the researchers have used modeling and experimentation to demonstrate the use of the technique in one-dimensional and two-dimensional systems. He said the researchers are conducting further work to see how the technique works in three dimensions by stacking the cells as well as connecting them horizontally.The inspiration for the technique came from crystallography, Paulino said. Many important material properties are determined by the geometry of crystalline structures. Diamonds&rsquo; clarity and strength, for example, depend on regular configurations of carbon structures. Paulino and his colleagues wanted to explore whether they could use geometry to mimic those conditions in larger-scale materials.Phanisri Pratapa, one of the researchers and a professor at the Indian Institute of Technology Madras, said the researchers were encouraged by the results and eager to continue along this line of inquiry.&ldquo;The intriguing mechanisms exhibited by our folding material indicate the existence of more such mysteries in origami-based architected metamaterials that are yet to be unraveled,&rdquo; he said.The article, Triclinic metamaterials by tristable origami with reprogrammable frustration, was published Oct. 26 in the journal Advanced Materials with a front cover illustration. Support for the work was provided in part by the U.S. National Science Foundation, the Peking University College of Engineering, the Indian Department of Science &amp; Technology, the European Commission, and the Japan Science and Technology Agency.

Springs, squeegees and soda straws function with a common property — they are rigid in one direction and flexible in another. Structures like these, with properties that vary across dimensions, have played critical roles in human technology from the longbow to the booster rocket.