Finland's largest 3D printing workshop is at Espoo's Aalto University School of Arts and Design, where a total of 35 UltiMaker 3D printers (UltiMaker 2+Connect and UltiMaker S7 ) are in use. In the 3D printing industry, such a unit is called a "farm". In this article, we get to know the operation of this farm/workshop, its versatile applications and how 3D printing affects Aalto University in general. For this customer story, we met Hector Velasquez (Industrial Designer, 3D Print Workshop Master - Aalto University), the person in charge of the workshop at Aalto.<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/1KeUK371cgY?&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe> The core idea of Aalto University's workshop focused on 3D printing is to combine the best aspects of traditional and digital manufacturing techniques. By learning about 3D printing and the application of technology and combining them with, for example, the manufacturing processes of mold and ceramic products, students have the opportunity to develop their creativity and promote a modern perspective for the implementation of design work. Many of today's new (so-called emerging) designers have taken this path.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1721804744816-aalto-uni.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Photo: Wenla NwajeiAalto University's cooperation with UltiMaker has been a significant factor in the development of students' creativity, which has contributed to the emergence of new innovations. UltiMaker's easy-to-use hardware and software keep the 3D printing process user-friendly, which provides excellent support for turning students' ideas into concrete pieces. The feel and way of working of the workshop is structured to be a dynamic and stimulating learning environment, which helps students acquire expertise in printing technology regardless of their skill level. During the visit, several students visited the place to continue their printing work. At the workshop, students also have access to a diverse selection of materials. The most commonly used material of all is the easy-to-use PLA, but for example the TPU material designed for industrial use is often used. The student had made shoes suitable for use from TPU. UltiMaker's openness and cooperation with material manufacturers has made the material selection enormous.<a href="https://ultimaker.com/materials/s-series-materials/" target="_blank">Read more about the materials</a>Aalto University's 3D printing workshop is an interdisciplinary space where, for example, fashion, architecture and product design students can work together and use UltiMaker 3D printers to realize their own ideas. The interdisciplinary cooperation of the workshop creates a lively exchange of ideas among the students and promotes the development of innovations.Aalto University has well recognized the importance of education in order to utilize the potential of 3D printing as widely as possible. Learning at the 3D printing workshop is done in a practical way. Students can independently design and produce printable pieces and get to follow the process from start to finish. The student is personally responsible for the success of his printout. The workshop also offers the capabilities to implement challenging and complex 3D printing projects.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1721804766992-aalto-uni-2.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Aalto University's 3D printing workshop has been shown to have a strong impact on the development of students' innovations and creative learning. In general, Aalto has invested in 3D printing research and training, which has made the institution also a significant player in the 3D printing field in the world. When knowledge, skills and technologies are combined with developing students, the possibilities for success are limitless.

Finland's largest 3D printing workshop is at Espoo's Aalto University School of Arts and Design, where a total of 35 UltiMaker 3D printers (UltiMaker 2+Connect and UltiMaker S7 ) are in use. In the 3D printing industry, such a unit is called a "farm".

Biggest 3D printing farm in Finland Aalto University's Innovative Workshop

Since the Industrial Revolution, several manufacturing technologies have been developed. These technologies can be classified into various groups according to their processes. Three major groups are additive manufacturing, subtractive manufacturing and formative manufacturing.<h2 data-counter-attr="value0">What is Subtractive Manufacturing?</h2>In subtractive manufacturing, objects are created by progressively removing material from a solid block or sheet. The material is removed from the starting material by cutting, drilling, boring, or grinding. While these processes may be carried out manually, they are more commonly achieved using computer numeric control. Today, the most popular subtractive manufacturing process is&nbsp;CNC machining.In CNC machining, a computer-numerically controlled cutting tool mechanically removes material to achieve a geometry. It involves the use of CAD to design a model to be machined, as well as the use of CAM to instruct the CNC machine on how exactly to go about material removal. There are three major machining processes that concern removing material according to 3D models, namely: turning, drilling and milling. Other subtractive manufacturing processes are laser cutting, waterjet cutting, electrical discharge machining, and plasma cutting. These methods are mainly used for 2D machining.Advantages of Subtractive Manufacturing<ul><li>It applies to a wide variety of materials including metals, plastics and plastic composites and even wood</li><li>It can be used to obtain almost any geometry such as flat surface, holes, cylinders, screw thread, slots etc.</li><li>It can produce high accuracy with close tolerance of about 0.025 mm</li><li>Smooth surface finish is obtainable</li></ul>Limitations of Subtractive Manufacturing<ul><li>There is material wastage as the chips formed are wasted. Even if the chips can be recycled, they are still waste material</li><li>It takes more time per part than additive and formative manufacturing methods</li></ul><h2 data-counter-attr="value1">What is Additive Manufacturing?</h2>Additive manufacturing is the process of joining materials to make parts from 3D model data, usually layer upon layer, as opposed to subtractive manufacturing and formative manufacturing methodologies. Although a majority of the current global activity in additive manufacturing involves polymer-based systems, there has been activities &nbsp;and interest in metallic part fabrication.Additive manufacturing is widely known as 3D printing. It is carried out using machines known as 3D printers. The term 3D printing covers a range of processes that differ by feedstock material and energy source. However, there are fundamental steps common in all operations.<ol><li>A CAD model of the part to be printed is designed.</li><li>Specialized slicing software then slices this model into several cross-sectional layers.</li><li>Depending on the technology used, the 3D printer proceeds to melt, fuse, or cure feedstock material and deposit it layer by layer until the desired geometry forms. &nbsp;The feedstock material may be powder, wire, sheet, or liquid.</li></ol>Advantages of Additive Manufacturing<ul><li>It is highly efficient due to the elimination of waste.</li><li>It is comparatively faster to go from the design stage to production</li><li>Produces intricate and complex designs with ease</li></ul>Limitations of Additive Manufacturing<ul><li>It&nbsp;has a limited range of materials when compared to other manufacturing processes.</li><li>It is expensive when dealing with metals.</li><li>It is not suitable for high volume production</li></ul><h2 data-counter-attr="value2">Comparison of Additive Manufacturing and Subtractive Manufacturing</h2><table><thead><tr><th> </th><th>Additive Manufacturing&nbsp;</th><th>Subtractive manufacturing</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Achievable complexity</td><td>Can produce parts with highly complex and intricate geometries, even better than 5-axis CNC machining.</td><td>Better suited to relatively simple geometry.</td></tr><tr><td>Producible features</td><td>Cannot produce features such as holes and threaded features effectively</td><td>Effectively creates holes and threaded sections.</td></tr><tr><td>Properties of parts produced</td><td>Properties of parts produced</td><td>Parts produced may have excellent mechanical and thermal properties.</td></tr><tr><td>Accuracy</td><td>Can achieve less dimensional accuracy. The most accurate AM process, SLM/DMLS, can produce tolerances as tight as 0.100 mm.</td><td>Can achieve greater dimensional accuracy. Tolerances as tight as 0.025 mm are possible.</td></tr><tr><td>Production materials</td><td>Works predominantly with plastics and to a small extent, metals.</td><td>Works with a wide range of materials, including plastics, metals, wood, foam, glass, and stone.</td></tr><tr><td>Finishing</td><td>Parts produced always require finishing processes.</td><td>Parts produced may not require finishing.</td></tr><tr><td>Setup</td><td>Requires minimal setup which results in shorter time per part, from design to production. After designing a CAD model of the part and converting it, all you need to do is setup the feedstock material, and the 3D printer does the rest.</td><td>Requires more effort and time in setting up. In CNC machining, for example, after designing a CAD model and converting it to G-Code, you need to set several aspects and parameters of the CNC machine. These include placing the workpiece on the work table, selecting and preparing the appropriate cutting fluid, selecting and affixing the cutting tool, and setting the right speed, feed, and depth of cut.</td></tr><tr><td>Scalability</td><td>Cost of production is directly proportional to production quantity. As production quantity increases, however, production costs rise significantly.</td><td>Cost of production is inversely proportional to production quantity. As production quantity increases, &nbsp;production costs reduce.</td></tr><tr><td>Speed and cost</td><td>Faster and less expensive for geometrically small parts, plastics, and small production runs.</td><td>Faster and less expensive for relatively large parts, metals, and large production runs.</td></tr></tbody></table><h2 data-counter-attr="value3">Choosing Between Additive Manufacturing and Subtractive Manufacturing</h2>Both additive and subtractive manufacturing are suitable for prototyping. However, while 3D printing is better suited for prototyping using plastics, additive manufacturing is preferable for metal prototyping. For finished products, subtractive manufacturing is more suitable. This is because parts produced by subtractive manufacturing do not always require finishing and have better mechanical properties.For small production quantities such as 1-10 identical parts, 3D printing is more appropriate as it is less expensive for such quantities, given that the material of part is a polymer. Production runs of 10-10000 identical parts are more cost-effective using subtractive manufacturing. For quantities larger than 10000, you should consider formative manufacturing processes.Smaller-sized parts are better produced with additive manufacturing. Subtractive manufacturing, on the other hand, is better used for larger parts.&nbsp;Materials such as metals, wood, glass, stone, and foam are either very expensive or impossible to manufacture using additive manufacturing. Such materials require subtractive manufacturing. On the other hand, materials that are difficult to machine, such as flexible TPU (Thermoplastic Polyurethane) and metal superalloys can be 3D printed.Additive manufacturing is more cost-effective than subtractive manufacturing for small quantities of plastic. For metals, however, SLM/DMLS and binder jetting cost 100% and 50% more than CNC machining respectively.In summary, additive manufacturing is best suited to prototyping and small-scale production of small, highly complex parts made from plastic. Subtractive manufacturing is better for large-scale production of relatively simple, large parts made from a wide range of materials.

This article discusses the processes, pros and cons, and the differences between two of these two – subtractive and additive manufacturing.

Subtractive Manufacturing vs. Additive Manufacturing

ADDITIV Polymers World is back!!&nbsp;Join the 2nd edition of the show on October 10th, 2024, from 9:00 AM - 1:30 PM EDT/3:00 PM - 7:30 PM CEST to learn more about plastic 3D printing, looking at everything from large-scale polymer additive manufacturing to automotive and industrialization and more! <img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIxMjU1MzM5ODUzLTE3MjA2MjA3NDk5OTYuanBlZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"> Do not miss the half-day dedicated to panel discussions, workshops, and networking, where the leading players in polymer manufacturing will be brought together.SPEAKERS<ul><li id="isPasted">Avin Quadros - 3D Printing Superintendent, Al Seer Marine</li><li id="isPasted">Dr. Nanzhu Zhao - Engineering R&amp;D Manager, Advanced Manufacturing &amp; Sustainability, Nissan North America</li><li id="isPasted">Madeleine Prior - EN Content Specialist, 3Dnatives</li></ul> <a href="https://www.additiv.events/polymers-world" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">REGISTER FOR THE ADDITIV POLYMER WORLD HERE</a>

Where 3D Printing Meets The Polymers Sector

EVENT: ADDITIV POLYMERS WORLD 2024

This article delves into the core principles, process parameters, and material compatibility of PVD vs CVD, empowering researchers and engineers to make informed decisions for their advanced thin film endeavors.

PVD vs CVD: Mastering Advanced Thin Film Deposition Techniques

Optical Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) Sensor 

This article delves deeper into the microscopic world of MEMS sensors, exploring their operating principles, diverse applications, and the cutting-edge advancements propelling them into the future.

MEMS Sensors: Miniature Marvels Revolutionizing Modern Technology

<section id="isPasted">From aircraft and trains to gas compressors and tanks, turbine engines play an essential role in our everyday lives. Often used in extreme environments, turbines are developed from&nbsp;refractory alloys that can withstand extraordinarily high temperatures.&nbsp;However, the manufacturing process for creating turbines can be challenging and costly.&nbsp;&nbsp;Dr. Raymundo Arróyave, Segers Family Dean’s Excellence Professor in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at Texas A&amp;M University, and a team of researchers were recently awarded a $1.8 million grant from the National Science Foundation to develop and demonstrate a framework capable of rapidly discovering new alloys. In particular, the framework shows potential to discover refractory alloys that operate at higher temperatures while also finding materials suitable for 3D-printing, allowing for the rapid manufacturing of parts and components of next-generation turbine engines.&nbsp;&nbsp;The project is entitled “DMREF:&nbsp;Optimizing&nbsp;Program formulation for prinTable refractory alloys via&nbsp;Integrated&nbsp;MAterials and processing co-design (OPTIMA).”“Our field of materials science is evolving quite rapidly, and currently, the emphasis is on the development of methods to accelerate materials discovery,” said Arróyave. “The motivation for this is the pressing need to rapidly solve important technological challenges with profound societal implications, including more efficient power generation and transportation.”To approach this issue, the researchers are using a highly interdisciplinary approach combining machine learning, artificial intelligence, optimization, manufacturing, metallurgy and computer simulations to discover printable refractory (temperature-resistant) alloys.</section><blockquote>The greatest attribute of these refractory materials is their most significant challenge: since these materials retain outstanding strengths at extremely high temperatures, the only way in which they can be manufactured into complex shapes is through 3D printing.<cite>- Dr. Raymundo Arróyave,</cite></blockquote><section>According to Arróyave, the key innovation in their technique that differs from other advanced approaches to materials discovery is that existing approaches assume that the materials designers know the parameters for optimization. In contrast, this new approach proposes to discover the problem, or what properties need to be optimized, during the materials discovery process.“Our approach is much more flexible than other approaches and allows for rapid change or pivoting considering new information,” said Arróyave. “For example, our approach can design alloys that avoid the use of a particular ingredient that initially is thought to be too expensive. If the conditions change, our framework is capable of immediately re-formulating the materials discovery problem and carrying on with the optimization in a seamless manner.”Even though the materials space is time-consuming and expensive to explore, this new robust framework could power autonomous materials development at much lower costs in reduced timeframes. The process will allow the researchers to find alloy compositions with desired characteristics, such as temperature resistance, malleability, strength and ductility. In addition, they could tailor the alloys to be suited for printing, creating a pathway to print parts and components of turbine engines that can be safely used in extreme environments.“We hope that this project will provide us with answers to deep questions about what important characteristics are necessary to render materials resistant to high temperatures,” said Arróyave.&nbsp;Once the optimal material is discovered, the researchers will investigate the needed processing protocols so the material can be 3D printed into a complex shape such as those of turbine blades.&nbsp;&nbsp;“The greatest attribute of these refractory materials is their most significant challenge: since these materials retain outstanding strengths at extremely high temperatures, the only way in which they can be manufactured into complex shapes is through 3D printing,” said Arroyave. “Finding alloys that have superior mechanical properties while being ‘3D-printable’ is what makes this project very challenging and simultaneously stimulating.”&nbsp;This research is in collaboration with Dr. Alaa Elwany, associate professor in the Wm Michael Barnes ’64 Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Dr. Ibrahim Karaman, head of the Materials Science and Engineering department and Dr. Douglas Allaire, associate professor in the J. Mike Walker ’66 Department of Mechanical Engineering. Additionally, the team collaborated with Dr. Brady Butler from the United States Army Research Laboratory.</section>

A 3D printer being used to create turbine engine parts.  | Image: Texas A&M Engineering

A developing new materials discovery framework creates a pathway to printable parts for turbine engines.

Hot Off the Press - Printable Parts for Turbine Engines

Ever since its inception, metal additive manufacturing has caught the attention of engineers and tech enthusiasts for its unconventional bottom-up approach and the buzz surrounding what it is capable of. Is it really advantageous to use additive manufacturing for a part that’s been reliably produced through subtractive processes for years? This article discusses this question and points out cases when <a href="https://xometry.eu/en/direct-metal-laser-sintering/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metal 3D printing</a> can be a good choice for the production of parts and when not.<h2 data-counter-attr="value0">Metal 3D Printing (DMLS): Process Overview</h2>Conventional manufacturing technologies like CNC machining are normally subtractive processes which means it removes material in order to shape a product whereas metal 3D printing technology is additive. One of the most common and popular metal 3D printing technologies is <a href="https://xometry.eu/en/direct-metal-laser-sintering/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">direct metal laser sintering (DMLS)</a>.<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/FxzFzbi0wF4?&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe> The typical DMLS process begins by slicing the 3D design CAD file data into extremely thin layers, effectively generating a 2D model for each layer.The machine uses a high-powered optic laser. Inside the build chamber area, there is a material dispensing platform and a build platform along with a roller used to move new powder over the build platform. The technology fuses metal powder into a solid part by melting it locally using the focused laser beam. Parts are built up additively layer by layer.<h2 data-counter-attr="value1">Cases When to Choose Metal 3D Printing</h2>Metal 3D printing comes with its own set of advantages over traditional machining. We listed here a few cases when it is worth considering metal 3D printing over <a href="https://xometry.eu/en/cnc-machining/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNC machining</a>.<h3 data-counter-attr="value2">Your Design is Complex</h3>When it comes to design complexity and freedom, metal 3D printing has a huge edge over conventional. Many complex designs cannot be manufactured with conventional technologies with as much ease as with 3D printing.Another advantage here is the low cost of complexity. Creating complex mechanical parts via traditional manufacturing requires precision and skills, especially for the assembly of complex parts, which means that price increases with complexity. It is not the case with 3D printing, which creates an entire piece in one process, instead of creating each component before assembling. Therefore, there is no added cost for complexity.<h3 data-counter-attr="value3">You Urgently Need Metal Prototypes</h3>If the number of parts required is less, say 1 to 5 or so or for prototyping, metal AM is much more advantageous. Since the cost is almost the same for each added unit, it is possible to make a needed amount of changes to the part. It can be used for prototyping: you’d use 3D printing to make a prototype and update the prototype until the required features are met. This is a crucial step before getting the product to mass production. It can also be used during the rest of the manufacturing process, to create unique pieces that can be more responsive to your needs.Also, it can be faster to get metal 3D prints rather than CNC machined parts. CNC machining normally requires more time to stock materials, set up the machine, get the right tooling. As a result, it can take several weeks to have the first part in hand. For 3D printing, even for DMLS which is more complex than traditional ones, the part can be printed on demand and shipped without any ramp ­up or tooling, resulting in shorter lead time compared to conventional technologies. The combination of the reduced lead time and the more efficient prototyping process reduces the turnaround time. This is one of the biggest advantages of metal 3D printing.<h3 data-counter-attr="value4">You Want Lightweight and Durable Components</h3>Aerospace and medical industries naturally require lightweight yet durable parts. Super alloys like Inconel 718, AlSi10Mg, Cobalt-chromium are known to be lightweight compared to their conventionally machined counterparts. Manufacturing a part with these alloys naturally makes them lightweight comparatively. As an example, GE’s renowned 3D printed fuel nozzles for its LEAP family of engines used to be made from 20 discrete parts coming from independent suppliers but using direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) resulted in a single-piece component that’s 25 per cent lighter and five times stronger than the original parts.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIwNjAwNjgxODc3LUFNX05venpsZS53ZWJwIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Fuel nozzle (Source: GE)<h3 data-counter-attr="value5" id="isPasted">You’d Like to Avoid Wastage of Material</h3>3D printing is incredibly resource ­efficient since the only material consumed is what passes under the laser (or through the extruder, etc.), whereas traditional CNC machining leaves chips and small pieces of metal that should be recycled. The fact that manufacturers don’t have to produce as much of a given product to justify the setup costs also reduces waste.&nbsp;<h2 data-counter-attr="value6">Disadvantages of Choosing Metal 3D Printing</h2>Apart from the advantages metal 3D printing possess over conventional technologies, there are a few considerations where preferring the latter is advised.<h3 data-counter-attr="value7">Grainy Surface Finish</h3>3D printing is an additive process, which means surfaces won’t be as smooth as with <a href="https://xometry.eu/en/cnc-machining/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNC machining</a>, and that it won’t be as easy to produce the desired surface textures. So if the surface texture is important for you, CNC machining should be considered instead. Nevertheless, there are many post-processing techniques that are available to remove support structures, enhance the finish and improve the aesthetics, the cost also increases accordingly.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzIwNjAwNzEwOTQ1LUdyYWlueS1zdHJ1Y3R1cmUtb2YtbWV0YWwtM0QtcHJpbnRpbmcud2VicCIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Grainy structure of metal 3D printing<h3 data-counter-attr="value8" id="isPasted">Less Strong Parts</h3>Because of the additive technology itself, metal 3D printed parts cannot be as strong as the one machined out of a solid metal block. The final strength depends on the design, size and material, but in general compressive strength of metal 3D prints is on average 40-50% lower than of CNC machined parts.<h3 data-counter-attr="value9">Expensive Serial Production&nbsp;</h3>It becomes cheaper to mass-produce through CNC machining. Mass production is still a huge deciding factor across the industries and this is where 3D printing lags behind and the speed at which a 3D printer can assemble an object often pales in comparison to the traditional assembly line.<h3 data-counter-attr="value10">Limited Build Volume</h3>When a large part size is required, it’s always better to go with CNC machining. For instance, the maximum part size that is achieved with DMLS is 250 x 250 x 325 mm and for <a href="https://xometry.eu/en/cnc-machining/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNC machining</a>, it is 2000 x 800 x 1000 mm. The size comparison clearly shows the inability of 3D printing in manufacturing huge parts due to its limited powder bed size.&nbsp;<h3 data-counter-attr="value11">Limited Material Selection</h3>Conventional manufacturing options like injection moulding and CNC machining can offer a high material selection. When it comes to metal 3D printing, the material selection is lower, which can be a limiting factor when specific materials are needed for the required part and must be taken into consideration when deciding which technical properties you want your product to have. As of now at Xometry we have five metal/alloy powders that support DMLS whereas if the required part needs some other material, there is no other option apart from traditional machining processes.<h2 data-counter-attr="value12">Summary</h2>It cannot be said that metal 3D printing replaces traditional manufacturing technologies in all aspects as both of these have their own set of advantages where they shine and disadvantages where they don’t. Here is a brief summary of what are the strengths of both technologies:<table><thead><tr><th>Metal 3D Printing</th><th>CNC Machining</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td contenteditable="true">Quicker turnaround</td><td contenteditable="true">Mass production</td></tr><tr><td contenteditable="true">Prototyping and low volume production</td><td contenteditable="true">Solid surface structure</td></tr><tr><td contenteditable="true">Ease of achieving complex designs</td><td contenteditable="true">Use of materials and need for technical characteristics unavailable with 3D printing</td></tr><tr><td contenteditable="true">Reduced waste</td><td contenteditable="true">Large-sized parts</td></tr><tr><td contenteditable="true">Customization and adaptability</td><td contenteditable="true">Strong parts</td></tr></tbody></table>

Metal 3D printing: 4 cases when to choose it over CNC machining and when not.

Technology Overview: When You Should Really Go for Metal 3D Printing

3D printing allows for the fast fabrication of objects with complex geometries. However, the layer-by-layer nature of additive manufacturing often results in visible striations and surface imperfections that can detract from the final product's quality and functionality.This is where 3D printer sanding, a simple but important post-processing technique, comes into play. Manual or power sanding is an excellent way to remove layer lines, support structure blemishes, and various printing artifacts, resulting in a smooth and polished surface that more closely resembles a molded or cast part. Sanding ultimately allows creators to transform rough prototypes into professional-grade products.This article delves into the art and science of 3D printer sanding, discussing suitable grits, application methods, and treatments that can be applied after sanding.<h2 dir="ltr">Why Sand 3D Prints?</h2>3D printing often results in layer lines and surface imperfections due to the additive manufacturing process. Sanding smooths these layers, creating a more uniform and professional finish, which is helpful for parts intended for visual presentation or consumer products.Additionally, sanding helps to remove minor defects and sharp edges that could compromise the part’s structural integrity or cause a safety risk to the end-user. Sanding away defects and excess roughness is also important for interlocking parts in an assembly, as friction is reduced and potential obstructions can be removed.Furthermore, sanding prepares the surface for further treatments, such as painting, coating, or gluing. A smooth surface ensures better adhesion of paints and coatings, resulting in a more durable and aesthetically pleasing finish. For parts that need to be bonded, a smooth surface enhances the strength of the adhesive bond.Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/pla-smoothing" target="_blank">PLA Smoothing: How to Smooth 3D Prints</a><h2 dir="ltr">Layer Lines and Roughness</h2><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1720531268075-3d_printed_boat_with_filament.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="layer lines">Layer lines compromise the appearance of 3D printed partsLayer lines are an inherent characteristic of fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing, resulting from the additive manufacturing process where molten thermoplastic is deposited in successive layers. As the print head extrudes material, it creates a series of parallel ridges and valleys on the object's surface, known as the "staircase effect."The layer height, typically measured in microns (μm) or millimeters (mm), is a crucial parameter that directly affects surface roughness. Smaller layer heights produce finer details and smoother surfaces but increase print time, while larger layer heights result in faster prints at the cost of more visible layer lines. The relationship between layer height and surface roughness is generally inverse: as layer height decreases, surface smoothness increases.<div dir="ltr" align="left"><table><tbody><tr><td>Layer Height (μm)</td><td>Surface Finish</td><td>Print Time</td><td>Visible Layer Lines</td></tr><tr><td>50</td><td>Very Smooth</td><td>Very Long</td><td>Barely Visible</td></tr><tr><td>100</td><td>Smooth</td><td>Long</td><td>Slightly Visible</td></tr><tr><td>200</td><td>Moderate</td><td>Moderate</td><td>Noticeable</td></tr><tr><td>300</td><td>Rough</td><td>Short</td><td>Prominent</td></tr></tbody></table></div>Surface topology in 3D printing is quantified using parameters such as Ra (arithmetic average roughness) and Rz (mean roughness depth). Ra represents the average deviation from the mean line of the surface profile, while Rz measures the average maximum peak-to-valley height. These values are typically measured in micrometers (μm) and provide a quantitative assessment of surface roughness.A 2021 study measured surface roughness on PLA prints printed with differing layer heights. It found that a very small layer height (50 μm) resulted in a low roughness of 9.04 μm, while a moderate layer height (200 μm) resulted in a higher roughness of 10.48 μm.[1]&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Material Suitability for Sanding</h2><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1720531277739-3d_printer_filament_spools.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="nylon">Nylon 3D prints are more difficult to sand than other materialsThe effectiveness of sanding 3D printed objects is influenced by the properties of the printing materials. Common 3D printing filaments such as PLA (Polylactic Acid), ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene), <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/asa-vs-petg-a-comprehensive-comparison-and-guide" target="_blank">PETG</a> (Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol), and Nylon each respond differently to sanding due to their unique molecular structures and physical properties, as shown in the table below.<div dir="ltr" align="left"><table><tbody><tr><td>Material</td><td>Melting Point (°C)</td><td>Glass Transition Temp (°C)</td><td>Hardness (Rockwell R)</td><td>Sanding Characteristics</td></tr><tr><td>PLA</td><td>150–160</td><td>60</td><td>70–90</td><td>Easy to sand, prone to heat deformation</td></tr><tr><td>ABS</td><td>220–240</td><td>105</td><td>105–110</td><td>Moderate difficulty, heat resistant</td></tr><tr><td>PETG</td><td>230–250</td><td>80</td><td>100–105</td><td>Moderate ease, good balance</td></tr><tr><td>Nylon</td><td>260–270</td><td>70-80</td><td>75–85</td><td>Not particularly sandable, requires special techniques</td></tr></tbody></table></div>When choosing a sanding approach, consider the material's properties:<ol><li dir="ltr">For PLA, use gentler sanding techniques with frequent breaks and wet sanding to prevent heat buildup.[2] Start with higher grit sandpapers (320+) to avoid aggressive material removal.</li><li dir="ltr">ABS can withstand more aggressive sanding. Begin with lower grits (180-220) for faster material removal, then progress to higher grits for a smooth finish.</li><li dir="ltr">PETG requires a balanced approach. Start with medium grits (220-320) and gradually increase, being mindful of heat generation.</li><li dir="ltr">For Nylon, use specialized abrasives designed for flexible materials. Employ a light touch and high-grit sandpapers to avoid deforming the surface.</li></ol>Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/petg-adhesion" target="_blank">ABS Smoothing: Acetone Vapor Baths &amp; Other Ways to Remove Layer Lines</a><h2 dir="ltr">Tools for 3D Printer Sanding</h2><h3 dir="ltr">Basic Manual Sanding Tools</h3><ul><li dir="ltr">Sandpaper of various grits (see below)</li><li dir="ltr">Sanding block or sponge</li><li dir="ltr">Filler (such as Bondo or a similar plastic filler)</li><li dir="ltr">Putty knife or applicator</li><li dir="ltr">Water (for wet sanding)</li><li dir="ltr">Safety gear (gloves, mask, and goggles)</li></ul>The grit system is crucial in achieving desired finishes, with lower numbers indicating coarser abrasives and higher numbers denoting finer grains. The FEPA (Federation of European Producers of Abrasives) P-grade system is commonly used, ranging from P12 (very coarse) to P2500 (ultra-fine).<div dir="ltr" align="left"><table><tbody><tr><td>Grit Range</td><td>Classification</td><td>Application in 3D Print Finishing</td></tr><tr><td>P40–P80</td><td>Coarse</td><td>Rapid material removal, initial shaping</td></tr><tr><td>P100–P220</td><td>Medium</td><td>Smoothing layer lines, preparing for finer grits</td></tr><tr><td>P240–P400</td><td>Fine</td><td>Removing minor imperfections, preparing for polishing</td></tr><tr><td>P600–P1200</td><td>Very Fine</td><td>Achieving smooth surfaces, pre-polishing</td></tr><tr><td>P1500–P2500</td><td>Ultra Fine</td><td>Final smoothing before polishing compounds</td></tr></tbody></table></div>For 3D print sanding, abrasives with good free cutting ability, such as open-coat sandpapers or non-loading stearated varieties, are preferable. These maintain their effectiveness longer, reducing the risk of heat buildup and ensuring consistent material removal across the print's surface.<h3 dir="ltr">Power Tools</h3><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1720531292242-rotary_tool_with_accessories.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="Dremel">Sanding with a Dremel is faster but can lead to part deformationRotary power tools such as those made by Dremel, operating at speeds of 5,000–35,000 RPM, allow for precise material removal and polishing, even in the most intricate areas of a print. Other options include orbital sanders (for larger, flatter surfaces) and belt sanders. Caution should be exercised with power tools, as they can generate heat that deforms the plastic part.<h2 dir="ltr">How to Sand 3D Prints</h2><ol><li dir="ltr">Remove Supports and Excess Material: Begin by carefully removing any support structures and excess material using pliers or a craft knife. Ensure that you do this gently to avoid damaging the part.</li><li dir="ltr">Start with Low Grit Sandpaper (60–80 grit): Attach the sandpaper to a sanding block or use a sanding sponge for better control. Sand the entire surface of the print using circular or back-and-forth motions. This step removes the most noticeable layer lines and large imperfections.</li><li dir="ltr">Apply Filler: After coarse sanding, clean the part to remove any dust. Apply filler to the surface of the print using a putty knife or applicator. Spread the filler evenly, ensuring it fills all the gaps, holes, and layer lines. Allow the filler to dry completely as per the manufacturer's instructions. Drying times can vary depending on the type of filler used.</li><li dir="ltr">Sand the Filler with Low Grit Sandpaper (60–80 grit):Once the filler is dry, sand the entire surface again using coarse grit sandpaper. This step smooths out the filler and blends it with the surrounding plastic. Use circular or back-and-forth motions to ensure an even surface. If needed, apply a second coat of filler to areas that still require smoothing and repeat the drying and sanding process.</li><li dir="ltr">Move to Medium Grit Sandpaper (100–220 grit): Continue sanding the part with medium grit sandpaper. This step further smooths the surface and begins to refine the texture. Use similar circular or back-and-forth motions.</li><li dir="ltr">Wet Sanding (Optional): For a smoother finish and to reduce dust, you can wet sand. Dip the sandpaper in water or lubricant and sand the part. This helps achieve a finer finish and keeps the sandpaper from clogging.</li><li dir="ltr">Use Fine Grit Sandpaper (240–400 grit): Once the surface is fairly smooth, switch to fine grit sandpaper. This step polishes the surface and prepares it for any additional finishing processes. Continue to use wet sanding if you started with it.</li><li dir="ltr">Inspect and Touch Up: Inspect the entire part for any remaining imperfections. Use even finer grit sandpaper (up to 2500 grit if necessary) to touch up any specific areas that need more work.</li><li dir="ltr">Clean the Part: Once satisfied with the sanding, clean the part thoroughly. Rinse it with water if you used wet sanding, and allow it to dry completely. If necessary, use compressed air to remove any remaining dust particles. The part is then ready for priming, painting, or coating.</li></ol><h2 dir="ltr">Tackling Intricate Details and Hard-to-Reach Areas</h2>Overhangs, internal cavities, and fine details can complicate the sanding process. For intricate details, micro-abrasive tools come to the forefront. Needle files, with their fine-toothed precision, excel at refining small features without compromising overall geometry. Abrasive-impregnated rubber points, available in various shapes and grits, conform to complex contours while providing controlled material removal. These tools, when used with a steady hand and magnification, can achieve remarkable levels of detail refinement.Hard-to-reach areas demand creative solutions. Abrasive cords and tapes can be threaded through narrow openings, allowing for sanding in confined spaces. Flexible shaft rotary tools with miniature attachments extend the reach into deep recesses. For internal cavities, flap wheels mounted on extended mandrels can provide an effective means of smoothing otherwise inaccessible surfaces.<h2 dir="ltr">Post-Sanding Treatments</h2>Post-sanding treatments can enhance the durability and functionality of 3D printed parts. Perhaps the most common technique carried out after sanding is polishing with a compound to achieve a mirror-like shine instead of a matte finish.Common sealants and coatings for sanded 3D printed parts include epoxy resins, polyurethane, acrylic clear coats, and specialized 3D printing sealants. These treatments not only improve aesthetics but also alter the mechanical properties of printed parts. Epoxy resins, for instance, increase hardness and chemical resistance, making them ideal for functional prototypes.[3] Polyurethane coatings offer excellent flexibility and abrasion resistance, suitable for parts subject to wear. Acrylic clear coats provide UV protection, preserving color and preventing degradation in outdoor applications.&nbsp;3D printer users may also follow up their 3D printer sanding with priming and painting for aesthetic purposes. Priming fills minor imperfections and provides a uniform base for subsequent treatments. High-build primers, applied in thin layers and sanded between coats, are particularly effective for smoothing residual layer lines.<h2 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h2>Mastering the art of sanding 3D printed parts is crucial for achieving high-quality smooth 3D prints even with processes like FDM. While alternative processes like acetone smoothing are excellent for finishing 3D prints made from ABS, sanding is a versatile option suitable for PLA 3D prints and most other materials — and even works on parts made using other 3D printing technologies.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>What grit sandpaper should I start with for 3D printed parts?&nbsp;Generally, start with a coarse grit (P60–80) for removing layer lines, progressing to finer grits for smoother finishes. Larger layer heights or harder materials may require starting with a coarser grit.How can I avoid over-sanding and losing detail on my 3D prints?Use light pressure and check progress frequently. Employ masking techniques to protect detailed areas. For intricate parts, consider using finer grits and sanding sponges that conform to complex geometries. Utilize magnification to monitor detail preservation during sanding.What's the best way to sand ABS and PLA prints?For ABS, use progressively finer grits and consider wet sanding to prevent heat buildup. Alternatively, ABS responds well to vapor smoothing with acetone. PLA is more heat-sensitive; use lighter pressure, finer grits, and avoid generating excessive heat. Water-based wet sanding works well for PLA.How do I achieve a glossy finish on my 3D printed parts?After progressive sanding up to a fine grit, use a polishing compound followed by a fine polish. For a final touch, apply a clear coat designed for high gloss finishes.Can automated finishing methods like tumbling damage delicate 3D printed parts?Yes, delicate parts can be damaged in tumbling processes. For fragile prints, use gentler methods like vibratory finishing with soft media or short cycle times. Alternatively, consider protective coatings or custom fixtures to shield delicate features during automated finishing.<h1 dir="ltr">References</h1>[1] Bintara RD, Lubis DZ, Pradana YR. <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/1034/1/012096/meta#:~:text=The%20test%20results%20show%20that,inversely%20proportional%20to%20surface%20roughness." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The effect of layer height on the surface roughness in 3D Printed Polylactic Acid (PLA) using FDM 3D printing</a>. InIOP conference series: materials science and engineering 2021 Feb 1 (Vol. 1034, No. 1, p. 012096). IOP Publishing.[2] Mwema FM, Akinlabi ET, Mwema FM, Akinlabi ET. <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-48259-6" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Surface Engineering Strategy. Fused Deposition Modeling: Strategies for Quality Enhancement</a>. 2020:51-68.[3] Goodman SH. Epoxy resins. Handbook of thermoset plastics. 1999 Dec 31:193-268.

For FDM and other processes, 3D printer sanding is a key post-processing technique for removing layer lines and improving surface finish. Here we discuss how to do it.

3D Printer Sanding: Mastering the Art of Smooth Finishes

Old Germanium point-contact diode in sealed glass tube 

This article delves into the inner workings of a diode, exploring the principles that govern its ability to act as a one-way valve for current, as well as its varieties, characteristics, and vital significance in modern electronics. 

How Does a Diode Work: Unraveling the Heart of Electronic Control

In this episode, we discuss how Audi technicians and mechanics are leveraging a commonly available 3D printer to develop jigs and fixtures for assembling their high performance cars!

Podcast: Why Audi Uses 3D Printers For The R8

One year on from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.protolabs.com/en-gb/resources/blog/aerospace-manufacturing-in-2023/" target="_blank" title="Aerospace Manufacturing in 2023">2023 survey</a> and events in Renton, Seattle have put aerospace manufacturing squarely in the spotlight – particularly relating to quality control, inspections and regulatory oversight. In addition, the previous twelve months have seen the civil aviation supply chain &nbsp;rocked by a ‘fake spare parts’ scandal, which saw airlines scramble to determine whether their aircraft were affected by bogus parts with falsified documentation.&nbsp;Taken as a whole, that will likely mean more scrutiny on certification, digital paper trails and quality controls for suppliers and manufacturers. However, did these events shift the needle compared to last year’s survey? Let’s find out.The 2024 survey saw 749 responses from RAeS members. ‘Engineers’ (37.62%) made up the majority of respondents in the 2024 survey, followed by ‘other’ at 19.28%, ‘retired’ at 17.14% and ‘students’ at 14.59%.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1719919340155-1719919340155.png" style="width: 614px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"> The Big QuestionsIn 2023, the first multiple-choice question, which allowed respondents to tick all that applied – ‘What is the main focus for the aerospace industry currently?’ saw recruiting more skilled personnel (53%) narrowly edge out sustainability (51.3%) and supply chain shortages (50.7%).In 2024, sustainability soared into a definitive lead with 65.33% of respondents choosing that as the top answer, followed by ‘recruiting more skilled personnel’ on 56.49%. Interestingly, supply chain shortages dropped to 34.14%, perhaps an indication that for those involved in aerospace manufacturing the worst of the supply chain crisis is now over.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1719919376504-1719919376504.png" style="width: 640px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Challenges and OpportunitiesMeanwhile, the next question, on ‘What are the key prototyping/manufacturing technologies currently being used in the aerospace sector?’ also saw a shift in responses from a fairly even spread in 2023, where ‘CNC Machining’ (54%), 3D printing (51%) and robotic manufacturing (45%) were almost neck and neck with the 2024 results, where 3D printing emerged as the clear winner at 74.09%, followed by robotic manufacturing at 57.72%. This may indicate that 3D printing or additive manufacturing is moving further into the mainstream and production uses, rather that just rapid prototyping.Robotic manufacturing slightly overtaking CNC Machining (51.41%)&nbsp;is also of note – and may indicate optimism about the rapid advances in robotics – particularly when advanced AI (which can already hold sophisticated conversations) is paired with the next generation of humanoid robots. While these will not replace dedicated industrial robots on production lines, the idea of multirole robots, that can be conversed with for other manufacturing tasks, may be closer than we think.There was a change from the 2023 results to the question of ‘How much of your manufacturing is produced in-house?’ with the most popular answer being 25-50% (29.59%) in 2024, down 10% from 2023.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1719919412902-1719919412902.png" style="width: 509px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib"> This may reflect respondents being more involved in the upstream R&amp;D phase of advanced manufacturing – where it may make more sense to outsource limited manufacturing runs before investing in factory and tooling. However, this finding seems to contrast with larger trends, such as Boeing now bringing back Spirit AeroSystems in-house and other moves afoot to ‘in-shore’ production, for example in decoupling from China, boosting sovereignty and enhancing national resilience following lessons from Ukraine.The next question, ‘What do you think are the greatest challenges facing the aerospace industry during their adoption of digital manufacturing techniques?’ saw ‘project costs’ and ‘lack of expertise’ score the highest with 5.34 and 5.02 respectively.This was similar, but with slightly lower weighting to the 2023 results, and project costs (4) and lack of expertise (4.03) reversed. Projects costs have grown considerably compared to 2023, showing that economic factors are having an impact on implementing new digital manufacturing techniques.The next question – ‘What percentage of your business’ manufacturing services are automated?’ saw ‘under 25%’ as the most popular choice with 31.44%, followed surprisingly by ‘none’ at 26.32% and then 25-50% in third place with 26.18%. This contrasts significantly with the 2023 survey, where ‘51-75% automated’ was the most popular response with 29.97%, followed by 25-50% automated with 28.65%. Putting aside the wild conclusion that some sort of rapid deindustrialisation of the aerospace sector has taken place over the past year, this would seem to indicate that many respondents in the 2024 survey are more engaged in the R&amp;D end of the manufacturing process, where hands-on rapid prototyping and design are more in use than volume production.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1719919473329-1719919473329.png" style="width: 436px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The following question, ‘What are the key factors considered when designing and manufacturing parts for the industry?’ saw ‘quality’ zoom into first place as the clear winner with 94.22% of the votes, trailed by ‘cost’ with 57.53% of responses. This saw a leap of around 30% from 2023 when it was still the number one choice, but was on 64%. In 2023, ‘experts on hand’ took second place, on 43%, which had dropped to 37.63% in 2024. This sharp jump in quality then could be explained by an increased focus on aerospace manufacturing issues over the past year, including Boeing ‘fake parts’ and the quality issues that P&amp;W has encountered with its GTF engines, which have seen airlines ground aircraft. Quality (and the safety guarantees from aerospace grade parts) have always been important but the results indicate that the aerospace sector now perhaps feels it is more under the spotlight for manufacturing issues than in recent times.Meanwhile, the next question – ‘How important is certification when working with manufacturing partners?’ saw ‘very important’ significantly increase in ranking from 47% in 2023 to 76.12% in 2024, with the next top answer for 2024 being ‘important’ at 20.35%. Again, the boost in the rankings for certification may be explained by aerospace manufacturing coming under closer scrutiny.Additionally, it is notable that the vanguard of a large ‘advanced air mobility’ sector, which includes eVTOLs, drones and hybrid-electric aircraft is now entering the certification and flight test phase – potentially shifting the results in that direction.For the next question, ‘Where do you see the aerospace focus in the next 3 years?’ the top result was ‘new technologies’ with 63.36%, narrowly edging out ‘sustainability’ on 60.13% and ‘recruiting more skilled personnel’ on 58.66% - while ramping up civil production post-Covid fell from 47.9% in 2023 to 23.09% in 2024.While ‘new technologies’ nudging ahead of ‘sustainability’ as the top concern might on one level seem a blow for aviation net zero ambitions, when one considers the history of aviation on the whole, ‘new technologies’ whether it is more efficient engines, improved aerodynamics, lighter-weight materials, or at the factory level, less waste, faster production and more efficiency inevitably mean that these go hand-inhand with sustainability. Viewed through this lens, ‘new technologies’ might in fact be seen as an indication that these sustainable technologies are now set to move from the drawing board or CAD screen to reality and production in the next few years.On ‘ramping up civil production’, while there are now, undoubtedly, issues in keeping up with the return of airline demand, air traffic in most parts of the world have now returned to pre-2019 levels. Constraints we can see are now from self-inflicted issues (such as Boeing’s ‘quality escapes’) and growth on top of pre-Covid levels. Interestingly, and in line with this finding, recruiting more skilled personnel fell from the number one focus in 2023 to third place in 2024 – suggesting that there are now adequate numbers of personnel who have either rejoined or have been recruited into the aerospace supply chain. Yet, as Boeing’s crisis may indicate and which has already been raised by others, the numbers themselves may not tell the whole story.An influx of new workers, to replace those experienced staff lost by layoffs, furloughs and retirement during Covid, may present new challenges in transmitting a safety culture. Though the staff numbers are now there, the experience crucially could still be lacking.In a question later on in the survey when asked ‘What certifications do you believe to be the most important?’ there was strong support for AS9100, EASA, FAA and ISO 9001, as well as more generic answers, like ‘safety’, ‘regulation’ and ‘international certifications’.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1719919529415-1719919529415.png" style="width: 487px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Finally, 2024 also introduced a new question into the survey – ‘How important do you think AI will be in advanced manufacturing/digital design in the next 5-10 years?’ ‘Important’ was the top answer, at 48.65%, followed by ‘very important’ at 32.61% and then ‘not so important’ with 16.85% of votes. These results suggested growing confidence in AI in the way it can revolutionise and transform manufacturing, whether it is optimising 3D printing, robotics, or natural language ‘virtual assistants’ to speed up queries.However, this was hedged with a note of caution in that ‘very important’ was only separated by 16% from ‘important’ suggesting that results had yet to be fully seen. This, undoubtedly, will be an area to keep a close eye on in the future.SummaryAgain, this Protolabs/RAeS survey provides valuable insight into the fast moving and highly dynamic world of aerospace manufacturing – one that, having been rocked by Covid and skills’ shortages, is now grappling to deal with additional demands on certification, oversight and traceability presented by aviation safety headlines over the past 12 months. That said, as well as the return to growth, there are bright spots in the votes for ‘new technologies’ being the top focus in the next few years, and cautious optimism around the role of AI in transforming advanced manufacturing.


In 2024, a joint survey from the RAeS and digital manufacturing experts, Protolabs, revisited a 2023 questionnaire on the top concerns and issues for those in aerospace manufacturing. One year on, what were the fresh findings of this updated industry snapshot? TIM ROBINSON FRAeS reports.

Aerospace Manufacturing in 2024

To advance soft robotics, skin-integrated electronics and biomedical devices, researchers at Penn State have developed a 3D-printed material that is soft and stretchable — traits needed for matching the properties of tissues and organs — and that self-assembles. Their approach employs a process that eliminates many drawbacks of previous fabrication methods, such as less conductivity or device failure, the team said. &nbsp;They published their results in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adma.202400082" target="_blank">Advanced Materials</a>. &nbsp;&nbsp;“People have been developing soft and stretchable conductors for almost a decade, but the conductivity is not usually very high,” said corresponding author Tao Zhou, Penn State assistant professor of engineering science and mechanics and of biomedical engineering in the College of Engineering and of materials science and engineering in the College of Earth and Mineral Sciences. “Researchers realized they could reach high conductivity with liquid metal-based conductors, but the significant limitation of that is that it requires a secondary method to activate the material before it can reach a high conductivity.”&nbsp;Liquid metal-based stretchable conductors suffer from inherent complexity and challenges posed by the post-fabrication activation process, the researchers said. The secondary activation methods include stretching, compressing, shear friction, mechanical sintering and laser activation, all of which can lead to challenges in fabrication and can cause the liquid metal to leak, resulting in device failure. &nbsp;&nbsp;“Our method does not require any secondary activation to make the material conductive,” said Zhou, who also has affiliations with the Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences and the Materials Research Institute. “The material can self-assemble to make its bottom surface be very conductive and its top surface self-insulated.”&nbsp;In the new method, the researchers combine liquid metal, a conductive polymer mixture called PEDOT:PSS and hydrophilic polyurethane that enables the liquid metal to transform into particles. When the composite soft material is printed and heated, the liquid metal particles on its bottom surface self-assemble into a conductive pathway. The particles in the top layer are exposed to an oxygen-rich environment and oxidize, forming an insulated top layer. The conductive layer is critical for conveying information to the sensor — such as muscle activity recordings and strain sensing on the body — while the insulated layer helps prevent signal leakage that could lead to less accurate data collection.&nbsp;<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1719495196118-240205-psnbody1-tao.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The new material, shown here, can self-assemble to make its bottom surface conductive and its top surface self-insulated. Credit: Marzia Momin. All Rights Reserved.“Our innovation here is a materials one,” Zhou said. “Normally, when liquid metal mixes with polymers, they are not conductive and require secondary activation to achieve conductivity. But these three components allow for the self-assembly that produces the high conductivity of soft and stretchable material without a secondary activation method.” &nbsp;The material can also be 3D-printed, Zhou said, making it easier to fabricate wearable devices. The researchers are continuing to explore potential applications, with a focus on assistive technology for people with disabilities.&nbsp;The papers other authors are Salahuddin Ahmed, Marzia Momin and Jiashu Ren, all doctoral students in the Penn State engineering science and mechanics department, and Hyunjin Lee, a doctoral student in the biomedical engineering department at Penn State. This work was supported by the National Taipei University of Technology-Penn State Collaborative Seed Grant Program and by the Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, the Materials Research Institute and the Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences at Penn State.&nbsp;<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1719495222063-240205-psnbody2-tao.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">The researchers 3D print the novel material.&nbsp;Credit: Marzia Momin. All Rights Reserved.

Penn State researchers developed a new soft and stretchable material that can be 3D-printed. The material can be used to fabricate wearable devices, such a sensor that can be worn on a finger, as shown here. Credit: Marzia Momin. All Rights Reserved.

To advance soft robotics, skin-integrated electronics and biomedical devices, researchers at Penn State have developed a 3D-printed material that is soft and stretchable — traits needed for matching the properties of tissues and organs — and that self-assembles.

Self-assembling, highly conductive sensors could improve wearable devices

Titanium, known for its formidable strength and lightweight properties, is one of the most important materials in metal 3D printing. When formulated as an additive manufacturing powder, titanium offers a broad range of capabilities within fields such as aerospace, medical, and automotive.&nbsp;3D printing titanium allows for the creation of complex, bespoke parts that leverage the desirable material properties of titanium — biocompatibility, high strength, and beyond — in previously unworkable geometries. The use of titanium with advanced metal 3D printing technologies like direct metal laser sintering can propel industries toward more innovative, efficient, and sustainable practices.This article looks at the basics of 3D printing titanium, discussing key additive manufacturing technologies, printable titanium alloys, and common applications.<h2 dir="ltr">Why Titanium 3D Printing Offers Huge Potential</h2>Titanium has turned metal 3D printing into a high-value opportunity for manufacturers. Known for its superb strength-to-weight ratio, titanium is a cornerstone in sectors such as <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/from-jet-engines-to-satellites-3d-printing-and-aerospace" target="_blank">aerospace</a> and automotive engineering, enabling the creation of components that are not only lighter and stronger but also more durable.[1]Biocompatibility is another standout feature of titanium, making it a preferred material in medical applications.[2] It is used extensively for implants and prosthetic devices that need to interact harmoniously with the human body while offering longevity and resistance to wear in a biological environment. This compatibility is essential for patient safety and the reliability of medical devices.Furthermore, titanium's inherent high corrosion resistance ensures that products last longer even under harsh conditions, such as during exposure to saltwater or corrosive chemicals.[3] This makes it invaluable in industries like marine engineering and chemical processing where material longevity is as crucial as its strength.On a technical level, titanium's mechanical properties include high fatigue resistance and excellent fracture toughness, allowing it to withstand rigorous operational demands. Its thermal stability also stands out, maintaining structural integrity across a wide range of temperatures, which is pivotal in high-temperature applications in aerospace and automotive manufacturing.Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/metal-manufacturing-processes-compared-machining-forging-casting-powder-additive-extrusion" target="_blank">Metal manufacturing processes compared: machining, forging, casting, powder, additive, extrusion</a><h2 dir="ltr">Titanium 3D Printing Processes</h2><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1720070163301-3d_printed_tool.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="Titanium parts">Titanium parts can be made with various 3D printing technologiesTitanium 3D printing technology is dominated by two main technologies: direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) — otherwise known as laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) or Selective Laser Melting (SLM) — and electron beam melting (EBM). The former is more widespread than the latter, with a greater number of 3D printer manufacturers.Other titanium 3D printing technologies include binder jetting, in which titanium is deposited along with an adhesive binder that is then burned away during post-processing, and direct energy deposition (DED).<h3 dir="ltr">Titanium DMLS</h3>DMLS uses a precise, high-power laser to fuse titanium powder into a solid structure. The process begins with a layer of titanium powder spread over the build area. A laser beam then selectively melts the powder by tracing the predefined path of the object’s cross-section, fusing the titanium particles together and to the layer below. This method allows for the creation of highly complex geometries, which are otherwise difficult to achieve with traditional manufacturing techniques. The primary challenge in DMLS is managing the high melting point of titanium alloys, which requires a very powerful laser and careful control of the energy input to avoid defects like warping or residual stresses.Manufacturers of laser-based systems for titanium 3D printing include EOS, Colibrium Additive (formerly GE Additive), and Nikon SLM Solutions (formerly SLM Solutions).<h3 dir="ltr">Titanium EBM</h3>EBM, on the other hand, utilizes a high-energy electron beam under vacuum to melt the titanium powder. This beam scans across a bed of titanium powder, melting and solidifying the material layer by layer according to the digital design. EBM is particularly effective at managing the reactive nature of titanium because the vacuum environment prevents oxidation, which is a common issue when titanium is heated in an air atmosphere. The electron beam can also be adjusted dynamically in terms of focus and power, allowing for precise control over the melting process, which is crucial for maintaining material properties and structural integrity.Manufacturers of EBM systems for 3D printing titanium include Colibrium Additive (formerly GE Additive) and Mitsubishi subsidiary TADA Electric.<h2 dir="ltr">Industries Using Titanium 3D Printing</h2>Titanium 3D printing has been a game-changer in several sectors, driving innovation and efficiency with its unique properties. While virtually all industrial sectors can use titanium 3D printing, three of the most important are aerospace, automotive, and medical.<h3 dir="ltr">Aerospace</h3>In the aerospace and aviation industry, titanium’s strength-to-weight ratio enables the production of complex components that are both lighter and more durable than those made with traditional materials. For instance, leading aerospace manufacturers use titanium 3D printing — often powder bed fusion process — to create parts for jet engines and airframes, resulting in aircraft that are not only more fuel-efficient but also capable of withstanding the extreme stresses of flight.[4]<h3 dir="ltr">Automotive</h3>In the automotive sector, the ability to print metal parts with titanium has led to the development of customized, high-performance vehicle parts. Manufacturers can produce lightweight yet robust printed parts like gears and brackets, which contribute to overall vehicle weight reduction and enhanced performance. This application is crucial in the context of electric vehicles, where efficiency and battery range are significantly improved by reducing the vehicle's weight.<h3 dir="ltr">Medical</h3>The medical industry benefits particularly from the biocompatibility of titanium. 3D printing with titanium allows for the production of tailored implants and prosthetics that fit patients with unprecedented precision. These corrosion-resistant, biocompatible implants are not only stronger and more durable but also integrate better with human tissue, which improves the recovery process and overall outcomes for patients. Titanium surgical instruments and machine components can also be printed.<h2 dir="ltr">Titanium Alloys for 3D Printing</h2>Titanium is a mainstay of metal additive manufacturing because, despite its hugely desirable material properties, it is not especially difficult to print. In fact, it is much better suited to 3D printing than other processes like CNC machining.Material manufacturers make titanium powders tailored for 3D printing. These metal powders are engineered for uniform particle size and shape, improving flowability and packing density in the print bed. This enhancement leads to smoother, more detailed prints and strengthens the mechanical properties by reducing inclusions and porosity.Most titanium 3D printing applications use titanium alloys — metal materials containing titanium alloyed with other elements — instead of pure titanium. The type of titanium alloy used depends on the specific 3D printing application. Some common varieties are shown in the table below.<div dir="ltr" align="center"><table><tbody><tr><td style="width: 16.434%;">Alloy</td><td style="width: 11.3579%;">Grade</td><td style="width: 47.9695%;">Description</td><td>Applications</td></tr><tr><td style="width: 16.434%;">Ti-6Al-4V</td><td style="width: 11.3579%;">5</td><td style="width: 47.9695%;">The most common and important titanium alloy for 3D printing, with excellent strength-to-weight, corrosion resistance, and biocompatibility</td><td>Aerospace components, automotive components, surgical instruments, medical implants</td></tr><tr><td style="width: 16.434%;">Ti-6Al-4V-ELI</td><td style="width: 11.3579%;">23</td><td style="width: 47.9695%;">This purer titanium alloy has an “extra-low interstitial,” making it slightly weaker than Grade 5 but better for biomedical applications</td><td>Surgical instruments, medical implants</td></tr><tr><td style="width: 16.434%;">Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo</td><td style="width: 11.3579%;"> </td><td style="width: 47.9695%;">A near-alpha titanium alloy with high strength and excellent corrosion resistance</td><td>Aerospace components, aviation components, marine components</td></tr><tr><td style="width: 16.434%;">Ti-5Al-5V-5Mo-3Cr</td><td style="width: 11.3579%;"> </td><td style="width: 47.9695%;">A beta titanium alloy with high strength and toughness that shows promise in 3D printing due to its poor machinability</td><td>Industrial components</td></tr></tbody></table></div><h2 dir="ltr">Technical Challenges</h2><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1720070176687-industrial_machine_interior.jpg" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="Titanium printing">Titanium printing requires skilled industrial operatorsTitanium 3D printing, highly valued for its exceptional properties like high strength and lightweight, confronts several engineering challenges. One such challenge is the stringent requirement for temperature control. Titanium’s high melting point necessitates precise thermal management during the printing process. Inconsistent temperature can lead to material stress and deformation, which are detrimental in applications requiring high precision such as aerospace components and surgical implants.Ensuring material sintering uniformity is another critical technical hurdle. The quality of titanium prints heavily depends on the uniformity of the sintering process. Variations can introduce weak points that compromise the structural integrity, making the parts unsuitable for high-stress applications. This challenge is particularly pronounced in the production of complex geometries where even minor faults can lead to catastrophic failures.The need for specialized support structures is also a notable challenge. These supports are essential to combat gravity and thermal distortion during printing but removing them without damaging the intricate parts requires meticulous techniques. The precision necessary in this step is crucial for industries like automotive and biomedical, where even minute imperfections can render a part unusable.<h2 dir="ltr">The Cost of 3D Printing Titanium</h2><ul><li dir="ltr">Titanium 3D printer costs: $250,000–$1,000,000</li><li dir="ltr">Titanium powder costs: $300–$600 per kilogram</li><li dir="ltr">Titanium parts from service provider: Approx. 2–3x raw material cost</li></ul>Titanium 3D printing is transformative in high-stakes industries like aerospace and healthcare but comes with substantial initial costs. Industrial-grade DMLS systems, for example, can cost six or seven figures. The production of titanium powder, essential for 3D printing, is costly due to the need for high purity and fine particle consistency, processes that are both energy-intensive and technologically demanding. These costs are further compounded by the environmental impact of titanium extraction and processing, which often involves extensive safety and regulatory compliance.Despite the high initial investment, sectors that demand exceptional material properties find significant long-term value. Aerospace applications, for example, benefit from reduced aircraft weight leading to lower fuel costs and increased range, while medical implants from titanium offer longevity that decreases the need for repeat surgeries, dramatically improving patient care and reducing healthcare costs. Alternatively, using a 3D printing service for one-off parts and prototypes is more feasible and cost-effective for smaller companies, though lead times will naturally be longer than in-houe printing.&nbsp;Operational savings are palpable when considering the longevity and reduced maintenance needs of titanium parts. These benefits, combined with ongoing advancements in 3D printing technology that promise to lower production costs, enhance the economic case for titanium in these critical fields. As efficiencies in titanium powder production improve, we can expect broader adoption in other industries, leveraging titanium’s unique properties more economically.Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/metal-injection-moulding" target="_blank">An Advanced Guide to Metal Injection Molding</a><h2 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h2>Titanium 3D printing stands at the forefront of technological innovation, enhancing industries from aerospace to medicine. The suitability of titanium for powder-based additive processes, coupled with the inherently desirable properties of certain titanium alloys, makes titanium 3D printing a valuable proposition for many sectors. As the technology evolves, ongoing advancements in material science and engineering are expected to lower costs and expand applications, making titanium 3D printing even more accessible and impactful.<h2 dir="ltr">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>What makes titanium ideal for 3D printing in aerospace applications?Titanium's high strength-to-weight ratio allows for the production of lightweight, durable components that reduce overall aircraft weight and enhance fuel efficiency.How does titanium's biocompatibility benefit medical 3D printing?Titanium is non-toxic and not rejected by the body, making it perfect for medical implants that require long-term interaction with human tissue.What are the main challenges in 3D printing with titanium?Key challenges include managing the high melting point of titanium, ensuring uniform material sintering, and the costs associated with specialized printing equipment.Can titanium 3D printing be used for mass production?While currently more suited to bespoke designs and prototypes due to cost and complexity, ongoing advancements are likely to enable more widespread use in mass production.<h2 dir="ltr">References</h2>[1] Boyer RR. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/bf00705316" target="_blank">Titanium for aerospace: rationale and applications</a>. Advanced Performance Materials. 1995 Oct;2:349-68.[2] Baltatu MS, Tugui CA, Perju MC, Benchea M, Spataru MC, Sandu AV, Vizureanu P. <a href="https://www.revistadechimie.ro/pdf/40%20BALTATU%204%2019.pdf" target="_blank" data-lf-fd-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true">Biocompatible titanium alloys used in medical applications</a>. Rev. Chim. 2019 May 15;70(4):1302-6.[3] Mountford Jr JA. <a href="https://onepetro.org/NACECORR/proceedings-abstract/CORR02/All-CORR02/114526" target="_blank">Titanium-properties, advantages and applications solving the corrosion problems in marine service</a>. InNACE CORROSION 2002 Apr 7 (pp. NACE-02170). NACE.[4] Śliwa RE, Bernaczek J, Budzik G. <a href="https://www.scientific.net/KEM.687.199" target="_blank">The application of direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) of titanium alloy powder in fabricating components of aircraft structures</a>. Key Engineering Materials. 2016 May 21;687:199-205.

In metal additive manufacturing, titanium powders have some of the most high-value applications, from aerospace manufacturing to patient-specific medical implants.

3D Printing Titanium: Best Processes, Alloys, Applications

Build strength into your part design by incorporating strategic support features and selecting the right thermoplasticsProduct designers build strength into their&nbsp;<a href="https://www.protolabs.com/en-gb/services/injection-moulding/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">injection-moulded</a> parts in different ways and for different reasons. Dissecting part application is a good first step in determining if additional strength should get designed into a part. How will customers be using your product and what environment will it live in? You may need parts that can withstand repetitive impact, resist wear, or bear heavy loads. It may be as simple as integrating ribs or gussets into your design, or a more complicated combination of design elements involving support features, material, wall thickness, and more. Finding the proper balance of design considerations will help address your part’s need for strength and stability.Ribs and GussetsRibs are thin, wall-like features typically designed into the geometry of a part to add internal support to walls or other features like bosses. In a similar fashion, gussets are support features that reinforce areas such as walls or bosses to the floor. Just as bridge beams and columns are supported at their vertex with gussets to add critical strength to the structure, the same concept applies to plastic injection moulding. <img width="570" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzE5MzA5NzAyNTcxLTE3MTkzMDk3MDI1NzEucG5nIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" class="fr-fic fr-dii" style="width: 404px;"> Our design cube illustrates thick and thin ribs, proper use of gussets, well-designed bosses, and other considerations to be mindful of when building strength into parts.*Both ribs and gussets provide stability in parts without having to increase wall thickness, and are particularly beneficial for parts with already thin walls that could potentially be compromised by end user wear and tear. It’s important to note that ribs and gussets should be no more than 60 percent of nominal wall thickness. These features are kept thinner than the primary walls in an effort to avoid overly thick sections where ribs and gussets intersect with the wall. When you have a surplus of material meeting at internal rib-to-wall intersections, sink marks can appear on the visible side of the part.Product designers can play with different ribbed formations to create square, rectangle, diamond, triangle, or honeycomb patterns that stiffen the part. A pattern of ribs is equivalent to coring out unneeded material, leaving only the rib support system—it also reduces the weight and cost of the part. But, remember to not remove surfaces and features that interface with the other parts in the product assembly.FilletsBecause sharp corners weaken parts, fillets—curved faces where ribs meet walls—can also be designed into part geometry to eliminate additional mechanical stress concentrations on a finished part. Much like gussets, a fillet that is too small will fail to accomplish its task of stress reduction, but a fillet that is too large can once again create sink. Identifying the proper size and locations of fillets (and ribs and gussets) are important. When adding a fillet to the inside of a corner, also add a radius to the outside of the corner, if possible. If the risk of sink is too high in some sections, then other strength-building methods should be considered.ThermoplasticsMaterial selection also plays a role in the stiffness, durability, toughness and other characteristics of parts; balancing the relationship between those material properties and part functionality is key. For example, product designers can choose a thermoplastic resin that will make a stiff, rigid part, but if its application demands a high degree of impact resistance, the brittleness of an inflexible part may cause it to break. Material properties differ from resin to resin—here’s a glance at some of our more frequently used resins,ABS is a good, stable consumer-grade resin that is tough and impact-resistant in daily use environments. It’s commonly used in housings for remote controls, battery-powered tools, and body panels for monitors, printers, and copiers. There may be chemical resistance concerns with ABS.Polycarbonate is more impact-resistant than ABS, and good for lenses and parts that require more shine. It is susceptible to stress cracking, and risks crazing/hazing due to chemical compatibility concerns.Unfilled nylon is pliable and impact-resistant with good lubricity for wear. Glass-fibre filler increases nylon’s stiffness and compressive strength, but the material becomes more brittle on impact. Glass-fibre filler helps increase heat deflection.Acetal is an excellent self-lubricating bearing material with great wear properties and good stiffness. It’s not good for cosmetic parts or parts that require pad printing, paint or decals.TPEs are great for dust seals and padding corners for impact resistance, and used in overmoulding applications for grip features. They’re not always good in dynamic applications; static applications are best. There may be chemical resistance concerns with TPE.Reinforcing materials with an additive can also build strength into parts. Long and short glass fibres make resins stronger and stiffer (but more brittle), and carbon fibres can make resins even stiffer yet. Minerals such as talc and clay are often used as fillers to increase the hardness of finished parts; and glass beads and mica flakes are used to stiffen a part and reduce warping and shrink.Wall ThicknessSometimes, if you want to add strength to a part, you just have to increase overall wall thickness. Protolabs provides a list of recommended wall thicknesses based on resin type to help design parts that are neither too thin nor too thick. The larger that parts get, the more attention needs to be paid to ribs, gussets, materials, and other factors that improve strength. As usual, our applications engineers are available to discuss part geometry and design, and look for the interactive mouldability analysis that comes with every quoted part at Protolabs.<a href="https://explore.protolabs.com/design-cube/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Request a free injection moulding design cube!</a>

Build strength into your part design by incorporating strategic support features and selecting the right thermoplastics.

How to Reinforce Parts with Support Features and Durable Materials

Researchers have created a new class of materials called “glassy gels” that are very hard and difficult to break despite containing more than 50% liquid. Coupled with the fact that glassy gels are simple to produce, the material holds promise for a variety of applications.Gels and glassy polymers are classes of materials that have historically been viewed as distinct from one another. Glassy polymers are hard, stiff and often brittle. They’re used to make things like water bottles or airplane windows. Gels – such as contact lenses – contain liquid and are soft and stretchy.“We’ve created a class of materials that we’ve termed glassy gels, which are as hard as glassy polymers, but – if you apply enough force – can stretch up to five times their original length, rather than breaking,” says Michael Dickey, corresponding author of a paper on the work and the Camille and Henry Dreyfus Professor of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering at North Carolina State University. “What’s more, once the material has been stretched, you can get it to return to its original shape by applying heat. In addition, the surface of the glassy gels is highly adhesive, which is unusual for hard materials.”“A key thing that distinguishes glassy gels is that they are more than 50% liquid, which makes them more efficient conductors of electricity than common plastics that have comparable physical characteristics,” says Meixiang Wang, co-lead author of the paper and a postdoctoral researcher at NC&nbsp;State.“Considering the number of unique properties they possess, we’re optimistic that these materials will be useful,” Wang says.Glassy gels, as the name suggests, are effectively a material that combines some of the most attractive properties of both glassy polymers and gels. To make them, the researchers start with the liquid precursors of glassy polymers and mix them with an ionic liquid. This combined liquid is poured into a mold and exposed to ultraviolet light, which “cures” the material. The mold is then removed, leaving behind the glassy gel.“The ionic liquid is a solvent, like water, but is made entirely of ions,” says Dickey. “Normally when you add a solvent to a polymer, the solvent pushes apart the polymer chains, making the polymer soft and stretchable. That’s why a wet contact lens is pliable, and a dry contact lens isn’t. In glassy gels, the solvent pushes the molecular chains in the polymer apart, which allows it to be stretchable like a gel. However, the ions in the solvent are strongly attracted to the polymer, which prevents the polymer chains from moving. The inability of chains to move is what makes it glassy. The end result is that the material is hard due to the attractive forces, but is still capable of stretching due to the extra spacing.”The researchers found that glassy gels could be made with a variety of different polymers and ionic liquids, though not all classes of polymers can be used to create glassy gels.“Polymers that are charged or polar hold promise for glassy gels, because they’re attracted to the ionic liquid,” Dickey says.In testing, the researchers found that the glassy gels don’t evaporate or dry out, even though they consist of 50-60% liquid.“Maybe the most intriguing characteristic of the glassy gels is how adhesive they are,” says Dickey. “Because while we understand what makes them hard and stretchable, we can only speculate about what makes them so sticky.”The researchers also think glassy gels hold promise for practical applications because they’re easy to make.“Creating glassy gels is a simple process that can be done by curing it in any type of mold or by 3D printing it,” says Dickey. “Most plastics with similar mechanical properties require manufacturers to create polymer as a feedstock and then transport that polymer to another facility where the polymer is melted and formed into the end product.“We’re excited to see how glassy gels can be used and are open to working with collaborators on identifying applications for these materials.”The paper, “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07564-0" data-type="link" data-id="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07564-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Glassy Gels Toughened by Solvent</a>,” is published in the journal&nbsp;Nature. Co-lead author of the paper is Xun Xiao of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. The paper was co-authored by Salma Siddika, a Ph.D. student at NC&nbsp;State; Mohammad Shamsi, a former Ph.D. student at NC&nbsp;State; Ethan Frey, a former undergrad at NC state; Brendan O’Connor, a professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering at NC&nbsp;State; Wubin Bai, a professor of applied physical sciences at UNC; and Wen Qian, a research associate professor of mechanical and materials engineering at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln.A video explaining glassy gels, and demonstrating their properties, can be found at <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LV-vgxxbNeY" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LV-vgxxbNeY</a><iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/LV-vgxxbNeY?&amp;wmode=opaque&amp;rel=0&amp;enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true"></iframe> The work was partially supported by funding from the Coastal Studies Institute.

Researchers have created a new class of materials called “glassy gels” that are very hard and difficult to break despite containing more than 50% liquid. Coupled with the fact that glassy gels are simple to produce, the material holds promise for a variety of applications.

Researchers Create New Class of Materials Called 'Glassy Gels'

What is 3D printing? This article goes over the basics of 3D printing, otherwise known as additive manufacturing, covering its engineering principles and applications.


What is 3D Printing: A Comprehensive Guide to its Engineering Principles and Applications

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3d printing and other digital manufacturing

Print speed is an important but often misunderstood metric in 3D printing. Specified in millimeters per second, it refers to the speed at which the printhead moves while printing filament, and it can be adjusted in your slicing software.But just as you might crash your car if you “floor it” on a winding road, your prints are likely to fail if you print at your printer’s maximum print speed all the time. This is because print speed is limited not just by how fast the printhead can move along the X and Y axes, but also by how quickly and evenly the extruder can push out material and by how that material behaves once it is printed. In general, the faster you print, the more likely you are to suffer problems like poor layer adhesion, ringing (ghosting), or nozzle jams.This article provides an overview of how to push the printing speed of the Creality Ender 3, one of the most popular entry-level FDM printers, while maintaining good print quality. According to Creality, the Ender 3 has a top speed of 180 mm/s. But can you actually print this fast, or is it equivalent to hitting the gas in a residential neighborhood? Let’s find out.<h2 dir="ltr">The Ender 3: Machine and Myth</h2><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjg1OTY5ODAyMDUxLWVuZGVyM21vZGVsLmpwZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="model ender">Printing a model on the Ender 3 (Credit: Creality)The Creality Ender 3 remains — for better or worse — the 3D printer of choice for hobbyists and beginners. As of Spring 2024, the printer is still shifting over 2,000 units per month on Amazon US, more than double the next most popular machine, the Flashforge ADVENTURER 5M.Of course, there are other affordable FDM printers out there. And Creality has built plenty of similarly priced printers with better specs than the original Ender 3, which is now six years old. So why do buyers keep choosing the original Ender 3 over “better” models like the Ender 3 S1 or Ender 3 Pro? Truth be told, the Ender 3 continues to dominate entry-level 3D printing precisely because it always has: its consistent popularity has created a very large user base, many of whom are happy to share advice on print settings and maintenance through online communities.Another reason for the popularity for the Ender 3 is how average it is. It’s a great starter printer because it has standard hardware, runs on standard Marlin firmware, and doesn’t have any major quirks or nonstandard features. Great, therefore, for learning the basics. Unfortunately, this also means it also offers average printing results. In line with this, the Ender 3 is capable of average print speeds. According to Creality, the “normal” print speed for the Ender 3 is 30–60 mm/s. However, the company also claims the printer is capable of reaching a maximum print speed of up to 180 mm/s. As we can see, that is roughly in line with other entry-level FDM machines:<div align="center" dir="ltr"><table><tbody><tr><td>3D printer</td><td>Max print speed (mm/s)</td></tr><tr><td>Creality Ender 3</td><td>180</td></tr><tr><td>Original Prusa i3 MK3S+</td><td>200+</td></tr><tr><td>Anycubic Kobra</td><td>180</td></tr></tbody></table></div>In the following sections we’ll look at how to adjust the printer’s hardware, firmware, and <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/best-ender-3-pro-cura-settings-temperature-speed-retraction-more" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">slicer settings</a> to successfully print at somewhere close to 180 mm/s without creating a hot mess.<h2 dir="ltr">Print Speed and Its Limits</h2>You can increase the print speed of a build by adjusting the print speed setting in your slicer (Cura, Simplify3D, etc.). However, setting a high value is no guarantee that your model will print successfully. When printing fast, the printer needs to be extruding enough material to keep up, and each layer of material needs to bond and then cool fast enough to prevent issues like poor adhesion or sagging.[1] In other words, we may need to take several steps before cranking up the print speed, and even then there’s no guarantee that a speedy print will result in a satisfactory printed object. (Strangely, some researchers have found that fast printing speeds can actually improve the tensile strength of printed parts,[2] but don't take that as your starting point.)Note that print speed is not the same as printing time — i.e. how long it takes to finish a print. While print time is determined to some extent by the print speed, it is also affected by other factors like travel speed, <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/3d-printer-nozzle-size" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">layer height</a>, and infill density. (Think about it like this: small parts can have a very short printing time even when printed at slow speeds, simply because they are small!) Here we are looking at ways to get your Ender 3 extruding and depositing material at a fast rate, not just ways to shorten print times.Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/3d-print-speed-what-it-is-and-why-it-matters" target="_blank">3D print speed: What it is and why it matters</a><h2 dir="ltr">Slicer Settings</h2><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjg1OTY5ODgxMjgxLWN1cmEuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="cura speed">Cura speed settings (Credit: Ultimaker)The most beginner-friendly way to speed up the Ender 3 is to tweak the settings in your chosen slicer, such as Cura. This doesn’t require any physical modification of the printer and is a good way to familiarize yourself with the Ender 3 and what it can do. Bear in mind that some slicer parameters are mutually dependent, so you’ll have to consider how changing one parameter will affect another.While there are many settings that affect print speed, the two you should focus on are the default print speed and the acceleration. Note that the acceleration value will be relatively low by default, which means the specified "speed" is rarely reached. For an instant speed boost, crank up the acceleration and see what happens.&nbsp;<div dir="ltr" align="center"><table><tbody><tr><td>Parameter</td><td>Explanation</td><td>Possible Value</td></tr><tr><td>Print speed</td><td>Determines how fast the printhead moves along the X and Y axes unless another parameter overrides it</td><td>Up to ~80 mm/s on stock components and firmware; up to ~180 mm/s with modifications and certain materials</td></tr><tr><td>Acceleration</td><td>Determines how quickly the printhead reaches the print speed specified above</td><td>Set at 500 mm/s2 by default but can be changed to 2,000 mm/s2 or higher</td></tr><tr><td>Section-specific speed settings</td><td>Determines how quickly the printhead moves on particular areas of the print (infill, walls, initial layers, etc.)</td><td>Dependent on various factors, but note that these settings will override default print speed</td></tr><tr><td>Temperature</td><td>Determines the extrusion temperature</td><td>Material-dependent, but higher values are required for faster extrusion rates</td></tr></tbody></table></div><h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Hardware</h2>In terms of the Ender 3’s hardware, there are two strategies for increasing print speed. One is to tweak and optimize the existing components; the other is to replace components with speed-friendly alternatives.<h3 dir="ltr">Maintenance</h3>The simplest way to increase the speed capacity of the Ender 3 — albeit by very fine margins — is to perform general maintenance and calibration on the machine. This can include basic processes like bed leveling, cleaning the bed and moving parts, and cleaning the nozzle to ensure there are no blockages preventing fast material extrusion. While this won’t turn the Ender 3 into a Ferrari, it can slightly reduce the likelihood of speed-related issues like under-extrusion and ringing.Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/ender-3-bed-leveling" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Ender 3 Pro Bed Leveling: A Comprehensive Guide</a><h3 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Replacing the Extruder and Hot End</h3><h3 dir="ltr"> </h3><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjg1OTY5OTMzMDA0LXY2LUNvbnRleHQuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="e3d v6">Installing the E3D V6 hot end can increase print speed (Credit: E3D)A much more effective way to speed up your Ender 3 is to replace the stock components with better ones. Some Ender 3 users have reported improved results by installing linear rails on their printer, which can improve the smoothness of the printer’s movements and reduce maintenance requirements. However, the main components to focus on for speed improvements are the hotend and extruder.While the stock Ender 3 parts aren’t total junk, they won’t allow for ultrafast printing: many users have issues when approaching the 100 mm/s mark, as the hotend isn’t hot enough and the extruder doesn’t have adequate traction to move the filament along at rapid speeds. An E3D V6 all-metal hotend, on the other hand, is lightweight and offers better thermal properties than the stock component, enabling faster heating and cooling and reducing the time required for temperature changes during the printing process. Its optimized heat dissipation maintains stable temperature control, allowing for faster print speeds that won’t lead to failed prints.Additionally, a new extruder like the Bondtech BMG, equipped with a dual-drive gear system, provides better filament grip and feeding performance. The dual-drive mechanism ensures consistent and reliable filament feed, preventing slippage even at higher speeds — something that isn’t really possible with the stock extruder. The improved grip allows for faster filament flow, which in turn allows for faster print speeds.Overall, swapping out the stock Ender 3 hotend and extruder for a V6 hotend and BMG extruder (or equivalent) reduces the likelihood of various extrusion-related issues that can hinder print speeds. The V6 hotend's thermal performance minimizes the risk of clogs or jams, while the BMG extruder's reliable filament feeding and flexibility in handling different filament types ensure smooth and uninterrupted filament flow, even at higher speeds.<h2 dir="ltr">Material Selection</h2><div align="center" dir="ltr"><table><tbody><tr><td>Material</td><td>Typical print speed (mm/s)</td></tr><tr><td>PLA</td><td>60</td></tr><tr><td>ABS</td><td>60</td></tr><tr><td>PETG</td><td>40</td></tr><tr><td>TPU</td><td>20</td></tr></tbody></table></div>If your primary goal is fast printing, you’ll need to find a filament that is up to the task. That essentially means a rigid material that won’t get stuck in the extruder, but also one that doesn’t need intense cooling, which ultimately slows the process down.&nbsp;Though it has its limitations, ABS is a great 3D printing material for fast printing. It doesn’t easily get stuck in direct drive or Bowden extruders, and it cools down quickly, which makes parts less likely to warp or collapse mid-print. PLA is also a good material for printing quickly. In fact, of the three most common low-cost materials, only PETG should be avoided. (All soft materials like TPU should also be avoided as they cannot be extruded quickly.)Some filament makers offer "high-speed" formulations of certain materials which have a higher melt flow index for faster extrusion.Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/comparison-of-pla-abs-and-petg-filaments-for-3d-printing" target="_blank">Comparison of PLA, ABS, and PETG Filaments for 3D Printing</a><h2 dir="ltr">Firmware</h2><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNzExMTM5OTg5NjMyLW9jdG9wcmludC1yYXNwYmVycnlwaS10dXRvcmlhbC04MDB4NTMzLnBuZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="raspberry pi">A Raspberry Pi running Octoprint to provide an interface for Klipper (Credit: Raspberry Pi)Another bottleneck on the Ender 3’s maximum print speed is its standard firmware, which is a version of Marlin. While this firmware does the job, it lacks some complex features that can help achieve better printing results at high speeds.Many Ender 3 users find they can achieve faster printing speeds by replacing the printer’s default Marlin firmware with Klipper firmware. Klipper provides advanced motion kinematics and additional tools that can help Ender 3 users get faster speeds out of their hardware, such as improved control over acceleration.Though it requires the use of a microcontroller such as a Raspberry Pi, one of the main benefits of using Klipper is its input shaping ability. Input shaping is a process by which the printer anticipates and compensates for vibrations caused by its own movement. By doing so, it reduces the chances of creating ringing and other defects that commonly occur at high speeds.Instructions for installing Klipper on a Raspberry Pi can be found <a href="https://www.klipper3d.org/Installation.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">here</a>.<h1 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h1>The Ender 3 is not a world-beating 3D printer, but it is capable of achieving good results at relatively fast speeds. Beginners who want to achieve faster prints should start by tweaking their slicer settings, focusing on increasing accelerating to a level that doesn't compromise print quality. However, more advanced users should consider updating the printer's firmware and swapping the stock extruder and hotend for speedier alternatives.<h1 dir="ltr">References</h1>[1] Abeykoon C, Sri-Amphorn P, Fernando A. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2588840420300196" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Optimization of fused deposition modeling parameters for improved PLA and ABS 3D printed structures</a>. International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture. 2020 Sep 1;3(3):284-97.[2] Ansari AA, Kamil M. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349871148_Effect_of_print_speed_and_extrusion_temperature_on_properties_of_3D_printed_PLA_using_fused_deposition_modeling_process" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Effect of print speed and extrusion temperature on properties of 3D printed PLA using fused deposition modeling process</a>. Materials Today: Proceedings. 2021 Jan 1;45:5462-8.

According to manufacturer Creality, the Ender 3 print speed can reach an impressive 180 mm/s. But is it possible to successfully print at this high speed? If so, how?

Ender 3 (V2, Pro, S1) Print Speed and How to Maximize It

Painting PLA 3D prints requires some preparation, like support removal, sanding, and priming. 

Painting is a great way to take your PLA 3D prints to the next level. Here’s what it takes to prepare your prints for painting and a guide to different painting techniques for 3D printed parts.

Your Guide to Painting PLA 3D Prints

CAD software is used to create 3D printable models

Most beginners start their 3D printing journey by downloading 3D models from the internet. But knowing how to make a 3D model for printing using CAD software opens up a world of possibilities.

How to Make a 3D Model for Printing

First-layer adhesion is critical to ensuring that your 3D print will be a success. But achieving good bed adhesion can be easier said than done. Corners unstick from the 3D printer’s build surface, <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/3d-print-warping" target="_blank">warping occurs</a>, and ultimately parts fail. Moreover, adhesion problems can be caused by a number of factors or any combination of issues, including bed leveling, bed temperature, extruder temperature, build plate deficiencies, <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/ender-3-v2-max-speed" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">slicer settings</a>, and more. Fortunately, there are several steps you can take to resolve the problem of a 3D print not sticking to print bed. In this article, we’re looking at the importance of bed adhesion when 3D printing as well as several different methods you can use to improve adhesion and, ultimately, print results.<h2 dir="ltr">The Importance of Bed Adhesion</h2>Bed adhesion plays a crucial role in the success of a 3D print. When the first layer of a print adheres well to the bed, it provides a solid foundation for the rest of the print. This foundation is essential for ensuring a print's structural integrity and dimensional accuracy as well as minimizing the risk of defects.If good bed adhesion is not achieved, it can lead to a variety of issues, such as warping, curling, or part detachment of the print from the bed. In some cases, poor adhesion can even damage the printer itself, as detached prints may collide with the nozzle or other components. By understanding what factors influence bed adhesion, you can significantly improve the success rate of your 3D prints and minimize the risk of print failures due to poor bed adhesion.<h2 dir="ltr">Method #1: Level the Bed</h2>One of the main reasons a 3D print may not stick to the print bed is poor bed leveling. If one side of your printer bed is even marginally higher or lower than the other side, it will affect the quality of your 3D print and how well the first layers of the print adhere to the build surface. In short, this is because the nozzle will be further away from part of the print bed and filament won’t be deposited evenly. When the nozzle is too close, it can cause the filament to be squished and spread out, resulting in thin layers and poor adhesion. Conversely, when the nozzle is too far away, the filament may not make sufficient contact with the bed, leading to weak adhesion.Ensuring your 3D printed bed is level can solve adhesion problems. Depending on the 3D printer hardware you have, you might be able to level the bed automatically or you may have to do it manually. If you are adjusting the bed level manually, one of the most popular methods for leveling a print bed is to use a piece of paper.&nbsp;Simply bring your 3D printer nozzle very close to the print surface and place a sheet of paper in between the nozzle and the build plate. Gradually raise the corner of the print bed using your machine’s leveling knobs until there is a bit of resistance when pulling the paper out. Repeat this on all corners of the print bed. You can also print a test <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/brim-vs-raft" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">skirt</a> after using the paper method to check the evenness of the first print layers. This is also a good idea because it allows you to check the level of the print bed while the machine is hot.<h2 dir="ltr">Method #2: Change the Z-Offset</h2>The distance between the 3D printer nozzle and the build platform, known as the <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/z-offset" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Z-offset</a>, may also be causing adhesion problems. In other words, if the nozzle is too close to the build surface, the first layer will be squished and won’t be evenly extruded; if it’s too far away, the filament extrusion also won’t stick to the build platform properly. The good news is that you can encourage good adhesion by positioning the 3D printer nozzle at the right distance.The z-offset can be adjusted in slicing software by changing the measurement values. Once the value is set, the z-axis will align itself accordingly to the print bed. If you are having adhesion problems, changing the z-offset should be used as a last resort. Where this method is most helpful is in situations where you are working with a thick build plate or if you are printing on a substrate.&nbsp;When experimenting with nozzle distance, make small adjustments and observe the results on test prints. Look for signs of proper adhesion, such as a smooth and even first layer, and adjust the nozzle distance accordingly until the desired adhesion is achieved.<h2 dir="ltr">Method #3: Clean the Print Bed</h2>It is imperative that your print surface be clean before you start 3D printing. If there are any inconsistencies, like leftover glue or filament stuck to the print surface area, it can cause first layer adhesion problems. The <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/how-to-clean-3d-printer-beds-glass-pei-adhesive" target="_blank">best cleaning technique for a print bed</a> depends entirely on the build plate material.&nbsp;If you are working with a glass print bed that has filament or adhesive residue on it, start by removing the glass bed from the 3D printer and scraping the residue off using a dry scraper. From there, you can wash the plate with soapy water or window cleaner. It is also a good idea to give your glass build plate a final wipe using Isopropyl alcohol (IPA) or acetone. These cleaning products will help to remove any remnants of grease without damaging the glass surface. You can also follow these cleaning steps with a removable borosilicate glass print bed.A PEI build plate can also be cleaned with water and soap or IPA to remove residue. To ensure the thermoplastic bed surface remains smooth in the long-term, you can also wipe it down with acetone once a month or so. It is important not to use acetone on a thermoplastic build surface too often as it can erode the material. Ultimately, a clean, smooth print surface can help the critical initial layer of a print to adhere.Recommended reading:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/how-to-clean-3d-printer-beds-glass-pei-adhesive" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">How to clean 3D printer beds: Glass, PEI, Adhesive</a><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjUwMjg3NDIzNjcwLTNkX3ByaW50ZXJfbm96emxlLmpwZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" width="624" height="437" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="3D printer nozzle and print bed">A clean build surface will help to promote good 3D printing bed adhesion.<h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Method #4: Increase Bed &amp; Nozzle Temperature</h2>Temperature settings play a big part in the final quality of a 3D print. Thermoplastic filaments like ABS and PETG harden as they cool, but if printed layers cool too quickly, the materials can also shrink, which causes layers to pull away from the print bed and warp. Using a heated bed, especially for higher temperature materials, can therefore help to improve bed adhesion.&nbsp;More than that, choosing the right bed temperature and nozzle temperature for different types of filament can also improve print outcomes. For example, ABS filament prints best with a build surface heated to between 90°C and 110°C and a nozzle temperature between 230°C and 260°C.[1] PLA, for its part, prints best with a heated bed of between 60°C and 80°C and with a nozzle temperature of 190°C and 210°C.[2]Keep in mind that the optimal bed temperature may vary depending on factors such as the specific filament brand, bed surface material, and ambient room temperature. Therefore, it may be necessary to experiment with different bed temperatures within the recommended range to find the best setting for your specific setup. Another helpful tip to improve adhesion is to print the first few layers at a slightly higher temperature to ensure that they will stick. After those first layers, you can lower the bed temperature back to the recommended degree for the rest of the print.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Method #5: Use a Bed Adhesive</h2>Another reliable way to improve your 3D printer bed adhesion is to apply an adhesive directly to the build platform before you start printing. There are a number of adhesive products developed specifically for 3D printing, such as Magigoo and Stick Stick. Some of these dedicated adhesives are even designed with specific materials in mind. For example, Magigoo sells adhesive sticks tailored to polycarbonate (PC) and nylon (PA).[3]&nbsp;However, there are also several DIY solutions for bed adhesives: many makers have found glue sticks to be a reliable option, while others use hairspray or blue painter’s tape (best for PLA filament) or Kapton tape (best for ABS filament) to create a grippier print surface. If you do decide to use an adhesive coating on your 3D printer’s build plate, it is important to apply them evenly and in moderation to avoid excessive buildup and to always clean your build surface after the print is complete, otherwise you risk glue buildup and an uneven print surface.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjYxNDM1NTE2NTQyLWhhaXJzcHJheS5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" width="624" height="459" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="Hairspray can ">Hairspray, glue sticks, or dedicated 3D printer adhesives can improve first layer adhesion.<h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Method #6: Adjust Speed and Cooling Settings</h2>If your 3D print isn’t sticking to the print bed, tweaking your print speed or cooling settings in slicer software can often help fix the issue. For example, setting the print speed for the first layer of your print to be slower than the rest of the build can promote better adhesion. A slower deposition rate for the first thin layer of a 3D print will help the filament to bond with the build surface.Cooling settings can also influence print bed adhesion and are particularly important for materials that are sensitive to temperature changes, such as PLA. Proper cooling can help prevent the material from warping or curling as it cools, which can lead to poor adhesion. However, excessive cooling can cause the material to cool too quickly, resulting in weak bonding between layers. For PLA, it is generally recommended to use a cooling fan at 100% speed after the first few layers have been printed. For materials like ABS, which are more sensitive to shrinking, a lower fan speed or no cooling may be more appropriate.For the best results, feel free to experiment with different settings and observe the results on test prints, making incremental adjustments until the desired adhesion is achieved. Keep in mind that the optimal settings may vary depending on factors such as the specific filament brand, printer model, and ambient room temperature.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Method #7: Use a Raft or Brim</h2>There are also other slicer settings that can be implemented to <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/3d-print-not-sticking-to-print-bed-heres-the-solution" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">improve bed adhesion</a>, such as <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/brim-vs-raft" target="_blank">rafts and brims</a>. Rafts and brims are features 3D printed alongside your part to improve stability and reduce the chance of warping. They increase the footprint of the printed model to encourage adhesion, which is particularly valuable when printing parts with a smaller base.&nbsp;A raft essentially acts as a base to your 3D printed part and ensures that your print adheres to its surface, rather than the build platform directly. A brim, for its part, consists of a 3D printed border that connects to and extends from the edges of a 3D printed component. Brims are effective at anchoring the edges of a build to the 3D printed bed and are typically easier to remove than rafts. Most slicer programs, like Cura and Simplify3D, offer automated raft and brim features.If you are using a raft or brim, it’s important to keep in mind that these 3D print features do require additional post-processing for removal. In some cases, the removal process is easy and can be done by hand, in other cases, you might need additional tools like cutters to remove the part from the structure.Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/brim-vs-raft" target="_blank">3D Printing Rafts vs Brims vs Skirts: How to Get Started</a><h2 dir="ltr">Method #8: Change the Build Plate</h2>Another method for improving first layer adhesion is to change your 3D printer build surface. Some desktop FDM 3D printers have a removable plate meaning that you can swap out the build plate for a new one should the original be damaged. But even if your print bed is in fine condition, it could be worthwhile to think about using different build surfaces depending on the material you are printing with.A glass bed is a popular choice for 3D printer bed surfaces due to its smooth, flat surface and excellent thermal conductivity. The smooth surface allows for easy removal of prints once cooled and can result in a glossy, mirror-like finish on the bottom layer of the print. However, glass beds can sometimes struggle with adhesion, especially with materials like ABS, which are prone to warping. For this reason, many makers also use additional build surfaces like PEI sheets or Buildtak to improve first layer bonding. These can be applied directly to the existing build plate and are particularly effective for high-temperature filaments like ABS and PETG. Both PEI and Buildtak sheets provide a textured surface that promotes strong bonding between the filament and the bed, reducing the likelihood of print failures due to poor adhesion.To maintain BuildTak and PEI sheets, clean them regularly with isopropyl alcohol or a similar cleaning solution to remove any residue or adhesive buildup. Inspect the sheets for signs of wear or damage, such as scratches, gouges, or delamination, and replace them as needed to maintain optimal print adhesion. When removing prints from the bed, use a spatula or a putty knife to gently lift the print without damaging the sheet.Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/3d-print-stuck-to-bed" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">3D Print Stuck to Bed: What to do?</a><h2 dir="ltr">Conclusion&nbsp;</h2>These eight methods can help you with troubleshooting your 3D printer adhesion problems. Sometimes a single method—like adding a layer of glue to your print surface—will do the trick. In most cases, however, making various adjustments will result in the best adhesion and high-quality prints. In sum, ensuring a level 3D printer bed and a clean build surface, as well as using adhesive aids, and having the right print settings and printing temperature will have the best print results.<h2 dir="ltr">Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)</h2>Q: What is the best bed surface material for 3D printing?&nbsp;A: There is no one-size-fits-all answer to this question: the best print bed material depends on the type of filament being used and the specific printer setup. Common bed surface materials include glass, BuildTak, and PEI sheets. Glass works well with most filaments but can benefit from additional adhesives. PEI sheets and BuildTak are also compatible with most filaments and can offer superior adhesion for common materials like ABS.Q: How often should I level my 3D printer bed?&nbsp;A: The frequency of bed leveling depends on your printer's usage and the stability of its components. It is recommended to check and adjust the bed level regularly, especially before starting a new print or after making any adjustments to the printer's components.Q: Can I use household items as adhesive solutions for bed adhesion?&nbsp;A: Yes, some household items, such as glue sticks and hairspray, can be used as adhesive solutions to improve bed adhesion. However, it is essential to apply them evenly and in moderation to avoid excessive buildup or uneven adhesion.Q: How can I prevent prints from warping or curling during printing?&nbsp;A: To prevent prints from warping or curling, ensure proper bed adhesion by optimizing bed leveling, bed temperature, nozzle distance, print speed, and cooling settings. Additionally, using appropriate bed surface materials and adhesive solutions can help minimize warping and curling. For materials that are more sensitive to temperature fluctuations, such as ABS, consider using a heated enclosure to maintain a consistent printing environment.<h2 dir="ltr">References</h2>[1] Tractus 3D, 2020. “ABS Filament” [Internet] <a href="https://tractus3d.com/materials/abs/" target="_blank">https://tractus3d.com/materials/abs/</a> [Accessed April 13, 2022][2] Tractus 3D, 2020. “PLA Filament” [Internet] <a href="https://tractus3d.com/materials/pla/" target="_blank">https://tractus3d.com/materials/pla/</a> [Accessed April 13, 2022][3] Magigoo, 2022. “Magigoo Pro PA (Nylon)” [Internet] <a href="https://magigoo.com/products/magigoo-pa/" target="_blank">https://magigoo.com/products/magigoo-pa/</a> [Accessed April 14, 2022]

Good first layer adhesion is critical to ensuring a successful 3D print.

Here are eight tried and true methods for optimizing your first layer adhesion with FDM 3D printing.

3D Print Not Sticking to Bed? 8 Ways to fix 3D Printer Bed Adhesion

PET or polyethylene terephthalate is one of the world’s most widely used plastics. Found in synthetic textiles, bottles, and packaging, PET has many desirable characteristics, such as strength, transparency, and lightness.[1]Because of these characteristics and others, PET has become a go-to material in FDM 3D printing. In filament form, PETG (glycol modified PET) offers some notable advantages over PLA, such as&nbsp;excellent layer adhesion,&nbsp;good impact resistance, and a&nbsp;low level of shrinkage. It’s affordable too: a spool of cheap PETG filament only costs about $5 more per kilogram than PLA from an equivalent filament brand.Finding the perfect PETG print settings can be tricky, however. When melted, PETG has a low level of viscosity, which — while great for fast extrusion — can cause <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/3d-printer-stringing-how-to-fix-it" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">issues like oozing and stringing</a>. Furthermore, its excellent bed adhesion can be both a blessing and a curse, with parts sometimes remaining stuck to the print bed after printing.With that in mind, it is essential to properly prepare your 3D printer when printing PETG. And while many slicers provide default settings for individual materials like PETG, it helps to understand what these PETG print settings are actually doing so that you can carry out fine-tuning to achieve even better prints. This article gives a rundown of the correct PETG print settings for most situations — though different printers have their own unique requirements — in addition to general advice such as print bed preparation.<h2 dir="ltr">The Basics of PET Filament</h2><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQ3NTAwMjkzODE4LXBsYXN0aWNfYm90dGxlcy5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="PET bottles">PET is used to make plastic bottlesPETG, or Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol, is a type of filament widely used in 3D printing. It's a variant of the standard PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate) material, with the 'G' standing for 'Glycol'. Glycol is added to the material composition to prevent crystallization and increase the material's durability. This results in a filament that combines the strength and printability of PLA with the flexibility and durability of ABS, making it an ideal choice for a wide range of 3D printing applications.One of the key advantages of PETG is its balance of strength and flexibility. It's stronger and more durable than PLA, yet not as brittle as ABS. This makes it a popular choice for parts that need to withstand stress or impact, such as mechanical parts or protective components.PETG also has excellent layer adhesion. This means that the layers of a 3D printed object stick together very well, resulting in strong and solid prints. This is particularly beneficial for printing large objects or parts that need to withstand significant stress.However, PETG is not without its challenges. It's more prone to stringing and oozing than other filaments, which can affect the finish of the printed object, and <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/best-ender-3-pro-cura-settings-temperature-speed-retraction-more" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">getting the right slicer settings</a> can be trickier than it is for PLA.<h2 dir="ltr">Build Surface &amp; Bed Temperature</h2><a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/petg-vs-abs-how-do-they-compare-/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Compared to ABS&nbsp;</a>and other low-adhesion materials, getting the first layer of PETG onto your build surface is a breeze. PETG will stick to most surfaces without too much trouble — in fact, steps should be taken to stop the material adhering too well and becoming stuck to the build plate.Choosing the right type of build surface is important when dealing with PETG. Very smooth surfaces like a glass bed can lead to over-adhesion, and such surfaces should be coated with glue stick or hairspray — which can function as a separator rather than an adhesive — to prevent damage to the build and the print bed.[2] Blue painter’s tape is a suitable surface for most PETG prints. However, a better solution is to use a&nbsp;textured build surface&nbsp;such as a&nbsp;powder-coated PEI sheet. Bear in mind that a textured print surface will leave a shallow patterned imprint on the bottom of the part, but this is a small price to pay for easy part removal.PETG prints best onto a&nbsp;heated print bed&nbsp;with a temperature of&nbsp;65–90 °C. As a rule, if good first-layer adhesion can be achieved at the lower end of that range, then stick with that temperature.<h2 dir="ltr">Nozzle Temperature</h2>PETG usually prints best in the temperature range of&nbsp;220–260 °C. 3D printer company Prusa suggests a printing temperature of 230 °C for the first layer and a slightly higher temperature of 240 °C for the rest of the build.[3] Filament company MatterHackers recommends 245 °C throughout.[4] If good results can be achieved at a lower temperature, stick with it, as a high temperature can lead to issues with bridging and overhangs.Bed leveling and nozzle calibration is another important step when adjusting PETG print settings. The distance between nozzle and print bed should be greater than it is with PLA, ideally around&nbsp;0.1 mm. This is due to the low viscosity of PETG: as the material flows freely, it can “drop” from the nozzle onto the bed without having to be forced vigorously.Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/petg-temperature-considerations-nozzle-temperature-heated-bed-cooling" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">PETG Temperature Considerations: Nozzle Temperature, Heated Bed &amp; Cooling</a><h2 dir="ltr">Print Speed</h2>Print speed is one of the simpler PETG print settings to configure. In general, the material is best printed at a moderate speed, ideally no more than around 60 mm/s. This leads to improved bonding and cooling, and consequently better print quality. Researchers have shown that the mechanical properties of PETG parts improve at slower speeds, as opposed to PLA parts, whose mechanical properties improve at faster speeds.[5]&nbsp;Perhaps more important, however, is the travel speed: the speed at which the printhead moves along the X and Y axes when it isn’t depositing material. Travel speed should be fast — around double the print speed, i.e.&nbsp;120 mm/s&nbsp;— in order to mitigate the potentially damaging effects of oozing and stringing: if the hot end moves slowly across the print area, it has more time to drip excess material onto the part, causing imperfections and potentially leading to print failure.<h2 dir="ltr">Retraction</h2><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQ3NTAwMzQxOTU3LXBldGdfc3RyaW5naW5nLmpwZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 300px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib" alt="PETG stringing">Adjusting retraction settings can prevent PETG stringingMost PETG users would agree that the single biggest disadvantage of the printing material is its tendency toward oozing (when material seeps from the nozzle) and stringing (when the seeping material forms a weblike mess across the part) — undesirable phenomena caused by the low viscosity of the plastic.The best way to counter oozing and stringing is to adjust <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/cura-retraction-settings-explained" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">retraction settings</a>. Retraction is a feature of FDM extruders wherein the nozzle pulls back a small amount of filament before it travels along the X and Y axes. By doing so, the printer can prevent unwanted leakage of the material and improve print quality. If stringing occurs during PETG printing, the following retraction print settings should be adjusted:<ul><li dir="ltr">Set retraction distance to&nbsp;3–7 mm, increasing it in increments of 1 mm until the stringing stops. The distance should be slightly higher for Bowden extruders than direct drive extruders.</li><li dir="ltr">Set retraction speed to around&nbsp;20 mm/s, increasing it in increments of 5 mm/s if necessary.</li><li dir="ltr">Reduce or remove the minimum travel distance for retraction.</li><li dir="ltr">Disable any vertical lift feature (such Z-Hop in Cura, a popular slicer).</li></ul>Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/petg-stringing-what-it-is-how-to-prevent-it-during-3d-printing" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">PETG Stringing: What It Is &amp; How To Prevent It During 3D Printing</a><h2 dir="ltr">Fan &amp; Cooling</h2>When adjusting PETG print settings, the 3D printer’s fan should be taken into account. In general, cooling a part during printing — bringing the temperature down to below the material’s glass transition temperature — can reduce issues like <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/what-causes-3d-print-warping-and-how-to-prevent-it" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">warping and sinking</a>, leading to better parts.Overall, using PETG can be advantageous because it exhibits a very low level of shrinkage as it cools, which means that parts — even very large ones — tend to maintain their shape as they are being printed. This means the plastic is less dependent on the printer’s cooling fan than a material like PLA; some users choose not to use their fan at all when using PETG 3D printing filament, though this might be considered risky.For most prints, using a fan speed of&nbsp;30–60%&nbsp;should suffice to prevent issues like oozing and stringing. However, only use the fan after the first few layers of the printing, as this will help to prevent warping, and remember that too high a fan speed will prevent interlayer bonding and result in a weaker PETG part.<h2 dir="ltr">Infill</h2>Infill density and pattern are important print settings to consider when printing with PETG filament. For PETG prints, an infill density of 20% to 30% is typical, but the optimal density varies depending on the requirements of the object being printed.<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/cura-infill-patterns-what-they-are-and-when-to-use-them" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Infill pattern</a>, the geometric pattern used to fill the internal volume of the print, is perhaps more important when it comes to printing PETG. Because of the viscosity of the material, infill patterns that require the nozzle to cross over previously printed areas within a single layer can create unwanted blobs of material. Patterns that avoid this issue include rectilinear, honeycomb, and gyroid.<h2 dir="ltr">Other Factors to Consider</h2>Beyond build surface preparation and key slicer settings, PETG users may want to consider a few other factors in order to achieve successful prints.PETG filament storage and handling is one aspect to consider. Because the material is fairly hygroscopic — not as much as nylon, but still enough to take on water in moderately humid environments — it needs to be kept dry. Storing spools of filament with a desiccant can reduce moisture levels, and users may want to heat their filament with a filament dryer or an oven before printing.Another important consideration is support structures. Because PETG exhibits very good interlayer adhesion, PETG supports can be difficult to remove. Users without a multi-material 3D printer may therefore need to tweak their support settings to ensure they can easily remove their supports without damaging the build.The most important parameter here is the support Z distance, which is a multiple of the chosen <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/3d-printer-nozzle-size" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">layer height</a>. Setting the value to at least twice the layer height can help with support removal.<h2 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h2>PETG is a valuable 3D printing material due to its strength, impact resistance, affordability, and resilience against shrinkage and warping. With careful consideration of build surface, retraction settings, and other printing parameters, it is possible to achieve high-quality PETG prints on most FDM printers.3D printer users should stick closely to the following PETG print settings:<ul><li dir="ltr">Use a textured build surface</li><li dir="ltr">Use a heated bed with a temperature of 65–90 °C</li><li dir="ltr">Use a printing temperature of 220–260 °C</li><li dir="ltr">Keep nozzle height at around 0.1 mm</li><li dir="ltr">Print slowly at no more than 60 mm/s</li><li dir="ltr">Use a fast travel speed of around 120 mm/s</li><li dir="ltr">Increase retraction distance and speed</li><li dir="ltr">Use a moderate fan speed</li></ul>By doing so, printed PETG parts should have good layer adhesion and a good surface finish while exhibiting minimal oozing or stringing.<h2 dir="ltr">Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)</h2>What is the optimal print temperature for PETG?The optimal print temperature for PETG is typically around 220 to 260 degrees Celsius. However, the exact temperature can vary depending on the specific filament and printer being used.Why is my PETG print stringing?Stringing in PETG prints can be mitigated by adjusting the retraction settings or lowering the print temperature.How can I improve bed adhesion when printing with PETG?Improving bed adhesion with PETG can be achieved by increasing the bed temperature and ensuring the bed is level and clean. However, PETG generally adheres well to most surfaces, and users should be careful not to create too much adhesion between the print and the build surface, especially when printing directly onto glass.What infill density and pattern should I use for PETG prints?The optimal infill density and pattern for PETG prints can vary depending on the specific requirements of the object being printed. However, a typical infill density for PETG is around 20% to 30%, and common infill patterns include rectilinear, honeycomb, and gyroid.<h2 dir="ltr">References</h2>[1] The Science Behind PET [Internet]. PET Resin Association. 2015 [cited 2022Mar14]. Available from: <a href="http://www.petresin.org/science_behindpet.asp" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">http://www.petresin.org/science_behindpet.asp</a>[2] How to Get Perfect PETG Prints on Ender-3: Correct Settings [Internet]. Creality. 2020 [cited 2022Mar14]. Available from: <a href="https://www.creality.com/blog-detail/how-to-get-perfect-petg-prints-on-creality-ender-3" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">https://www.creality.com/blog-detail/how-to-get-perfect-petg-prints-on-creality-ender-3</a>[3] PETG [Internet]. Prusa Knowledge Base. 2020 [cited 2022Mar14]. Available from: <a href="https://help.prusa3d.com/en/article/petg_2059" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">https://help.prusa3d.com/en/article/petg_2059</a>[4] Black MH Build Series PETG Filament [Internet]. MatterHackers. 2016 [cited 2022Mar14]. Available from: <a href="https://www.matterhackers.com/store/l/petg-black-high-strength-filament-1.75mm/sk/M3MY2VQG" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">https://www.matterhackers.com/store/l/petg-black-high-strength-filament-1.75mm/sk/M3MY2VQG</a>[5] Hsueh MH, Lai CJ, Wang SH, Zeng YS, Hsieh CH, Pan CY, Huang WC. <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/13/11/1758" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Effect of printing parameters on the thermal and mechanical properties of 3d-printed pla and petg, using fused deposition modeling</a>. Polymers. 2021 May 27;13(11):1758.

Adjusting your print settings can lead to better PETG prints

Thanks to its durability, chemical resistance, and low shrinkage, PETG filament is fast gaining popularity. However, it can be difficult to print without careful preparation and adjustment of 3D printer settings.

PETG Print Settings: Adjusting Temperature, Speed & Retraction to Improve Printing

While it may not be obvious to a beginner maker, any seasoned 3D printing hobbyist will know the importance of properly storing and drying filament. Truly, the moisture levels in 3D printer filament can make or break a print. We’ll take you through why keeping most thermoplastics dry before printing is critical and how to dry filament to ensure a successful print job.<h2 dir="ltr">How to Dry Filament</h2>Filament drying is an important step in the 3D printing process, as it can significantly improve your chances of achieving a successful print job. The good news is that it doesn’t have to be a difficult step: there are a few different options at your disposal for ensuring your filament is free from moisture. Let’s take a look.<h3 dir="ltr">Filament Dryer</h3>A filament dryer is a piece of equipment specifically designed to remove any moisture from filament. The principle behind it is simple enough: filament dryers hold a spool of filament in an enclosure with controlled heating, which causes the water molecules in the thermoplastic to evaporate evenly.Today, there are several types of filament dryer on the market, including simple plug-and-play products for the hobbyist market, and more advanced systems for professional users. The most basic filament dryers consist of a heated container that fits at least one filament spool. More sophisticated machines come with additional features like spool rotation and airflow for even heat distribution. Additionally, some filament dryers are designed to dry out an entire spool of filament at once, which can then be removed and loaded onto the 3D printer. There are also other systems, known as <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/how-to-dry-hygroscopic-filaments-really-fast" target="_blank">in-line filament dryers</a>, which are designed to dry the filament and simultaneously feed it into the 3D printer, which saves time.&nbsp;It is also possible to make your own DIY filament dryer. If you have a 3D printer with a heated print bed, it doesn’t take much to turn it into a filament dryer. All you need is a 3D printed support structure and a low-cost PC fan. [2]&nbsp;Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/how-to-dry-hygroscopic-filaments-really-fast" target="_blank">How to dry hygroscopic filaments really fast</a><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQ2MzE4MDk2MzU2LWtpdGNoZW5fb3Zlbi5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" width="624" height="459" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="Kitchen oven dry filament">Filament can be dried at home using a kitchen oven pre-heated to the right temperature.<h3 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Oven</h3>The most accessible way to remove moisture from filament before 3D printing is to use an oven. That’s right, just your run-of-the-mill kitchen oven. Simply set your oven to a low temperature—the exact degree will depend on the type of filament and its glass transition temperature—let it preheat, and then place your filament spools inside for up to six hours.&nbsp;Before you put filament in a heated oven, it is important to check that your oven has a precise thermostat. You don’t want to set your oven to 80°C only to find it’s actually 95°C and has started to melt your filament. To check your oven’s thermostat, simply put a thermometer into the pre-heated oven for a temperature read. You can adjust your oven settings based on any discrepancies.&nbsp;It is also important to never put your spool of filament in the oven before it has reached the right temperature. This is because many ovens will overheat before attaining the right temperature, which could ruin your filament spool and result in a mess of melted plastic.<h3 dir="ltr">Food Dehydrator</h3>Another filament drying solution you can co-opt from the kitchen is a food dehydrator. Food dehydrators work by circulating hot air through an enclosed container to dry out foods, like fruit and meat. Because most food dehydrators reach the necessary temperatures to dry out filament, they can also be used for that purpose. While food dehydrators are typically less expensive than dedicated filament dryers, their capacity is usually smaller—after all, they aren’t designed for filament spools. Still, they are a popular option within the maker community due to their accessibility.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQ2MzE4MTA4Nzk1LWZvb2RfZGVoeWRyYXRvci5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" width="624" height="459" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="Food dehydrator dry filament">Food dehydrators are also suitable for removing moisture from FDM 3D printer filaments.<h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">Temperatures for Drying Filament</h2>Regardless of whether you are drying your filament in an oven, food dehydrator, or filament dryer, there are specific settings for different filament types. A good rule of thumb is to preheat your drying device to just under the material’s glass transition temperature. The glass transition temperature indicates at what point a thermoplastic changes from a hard state to a soft state. <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/pla-bed-temperature" target="_blank">PLA filament</a>, for example, has a glass transition temperature of about 60°C, so a good temperature to dry PLA is between 40°C and 50°C.[3] <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/abs-bed-temperature" target="_blank">ABS</a>, on the other hand, has a higher glass transition temperature (105°C) so can be dried at a higher temperature. It is also important to take into consideration the spool holder material: you don’t want that to melt or burn in your oven.Common 3D printing filaments and their drying temperatures:<ul><li dir="ltr">PLA: 40°C-50°C</li><li dir="ltr">TPU: 40°C-45°C</li><li dir="ltr">PETG: 60°C-65°C</li><li dir="ltr">ABS: 80°C</li><li dir="ltr">Polycarbonate (PC): 80°C</li><li dir="ltr">ASA: 80°C-85°C</li><li dir="ltr">Nylon (PA): 80°C-90°C</li></ul>In terms of drying time, it can take several hours for moisture to be removed from thermoplastic filament materials. In general, you should dry your spools at the recommended temperatures for roughly 4-6 hours, however more hygroscopic materials, such as Nylon (PA) may require longer drying times. If you are using a dedicated filament dryer, drying temperatures and times may vary. &nbsp;Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/3d-print-blobs-zits" target="_blank">How to Prevent 3D Print Blobs &amp; Zits</a><h2 dir="ltr">How to Store Filament</h2>Filament storage is vital if you want to protect your FFF 3D printing materials from moisture and minimize the need to dry them. Proper storage is also good for keeping materials safe from humidity and things like dust once you have taken the time to dry them out. On top of all that, proper storage of filaments can extend their shelf-life and maintain their optimal properties.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjQ2MzE4MTE5ODkzLXBsYXN0aWNfd3JhcC5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" width="624" height="665" class="fr-fic fr-dii" alt="Vacuum packed filament">Proper storage for filaments can keep your materials safe from moisture and humidityThe key to storing filament so it remains in peak condition is to keep it in a humidity controlled space. One reliable solution is to place filament spools inside a dry box. In other words, an airtight container containing a desiccant material (for example, silica gel packets). It’s worth pointing out that desiccant packets need to be replaced periodically, as the materials absorb moisture. Fortunately, many types of desiccant can be reused: all you have to do is remove the moisture from them using a filament dehydrator or an oven on a low-temp setting.You can also place filaments inside vacuum sealed bags or containers, which provide an airtight seal and keep moisture out. These are particularly effective in regions with high humidity. These containers can be made of plastic or metal and should have a tight-fitting lid with a gasket to ensure a proper seal.A popular option amongst makers is to create a DIY dry box that not only protects filament from humidity but also feeds the spool into the 3D printer. This project requires a sealable container, desiccant packs, some PVC pipe, tubing, and a few other bits.[4] For optimal filament storage, it’s also a good idea to keep them out of direct sunlight or sources of heat, as these can cause the filament to degrade.<h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">The Problem of Wet Filament</h2>In the <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/fff-vs-fdm-is-there-any-difference" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">fused filament fabrication (FFF) process</a>, thermoplastic filaments are fed through a heated nozzle (called a hotend) until they reach their melting point. As they are melted by the nozzle, the filaments are extruded onto a build platform, where the melted polymer begins to solidify as it cools. This extrusion process is continuous, depositing layer after layer of material until a final object is standing on the build platform.If 3D printing filament has been exposed to moisture, it can lead to all sorts of issues, like material degradation. This is because the absorbed water can break the polymer chains in the filament, leading to a reduction in its tensile strength and flexibility. Furthermore, 3D printing with wet filament disrupts the printing process, as moisture in the thermoplastic evaporates as the material is heated. This in turn causes air bubbles in the material’s composition, which results in <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/3d-printer-stringing" target="_blank">stringing</a>, <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/3d-print-blobs-zits" target="_blank">blobbing</a>, and, ultimately, 3D printed parts with compromised strength and print quality.&nbsp;Moisture absorption properties of filament are influenced by several factors, including the type of material, the ambient humidity, and the duration of exposure. For instance, Nylon is known to be a highly hygroscopic material and can absorb moisture rapidly from the air. PLA, for its part, is up to 10 times less hygroscopic than nylon, but can still absorb a significant amount of moisture over time.[1]<h2 dir="ltr">Identifying Wet Filament</h2>While we call it “wet filament”, identifying a moisture-affected 3D printing filament is not quite as simple as touching it to see if it’s wet. Because of the hygroscopic nature of many 3D printer filaments—including PA, TPU, PLA, PVA, PETG, and to a lesser extent ABS filament—moisture and humidity present in the air are actually absorbed by the plastic. When water from the surrounding environment is absorbed by the filament, water molecules disrupt the polymer chains inside the thermoplastic in a process called hydrolysis. Not only does this increase the chance of bubbles forming in the filament as it prints, it also renders the filament more brittle and weak.<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1721045709703-3d_printing_fail.png" style="width: 100%px;" class="fr-fic fr-dib">Wet filament can cause stringing in 3D printsWhen 3D printing, some telltale signs that your filament has absorbed moisture are sizzling noises coming from your extruder and bubbles in the filament as it is heated. If the melted thermoplastic continues to ooze out of the 3D printer printhead even after the machine is off, it may also be a sign that your filament is wet. Other signs can be found in the 3D printed part itself, like stringing, blobbing, and poor adhesion between layers.Moisture-laden filament can sometimes also appear discolored or have a cloudy or hazy look. This is particularly noticeable in clear or transparent filaments, which may lose their transparency when they absorb moisture. Generally, however,, it can be difficult to tell whether filament has absorbed too much moisture before the print process. (That being said, if you notice your spool of filament is less flexible than it used to be, that could be a sign it is wet.) It is therefore important to store your filaments properly and to learn how to dry them.&nbsp;Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/3d-printer-stringing" target="_blank">3D Printer Stringing: How To Fix It&nbsp;</a><h2 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h2>Taking the time to dry and store your 3D printing filaments properly can save you time and money in the long run. Filaments are at their best when they are dry, encouraging a smooth 3D printing process (with no sizzling or oozing) and good quality prints (with no stringing and good layer adhesion). Be sure to follow this guide if you do want to dry your own filament.<h2 dir="ltr">Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)</h2>Q: Why is moisture bad for filament?A: Filaments need to be protected from moisture and humidity because they can cause degradation to thermoplastics. In the 3D printing process, when the filament is heated, trapped moisture evaporates, leading to air bubbles and other issues like stringing and blobbling.Q: Can I dry my filament in the oven?A: Yes, you can dry filament in the oven, but it's important to use a low temperature and monitor the process closely to avoid overheating the filament. Some ovens may not have accurate temperature control at lower settings, so it's recommended to use an oven thermometer to ensure the correct temperature.Q: How do I know if my filament needs to be dried?A: You can typically identity wet filament if you see rough or uneven surfaces on the printed object, stringing, or brittleness. If your filament has been stored in a humid environment or has not been used for an extended period, it may also need to be dried.Q: Can I reuse desiccants?A: Yes, many types of desiccants, including silica gel, can be reused. To renew silica gel desiccants, you can bake them in the oven at a low temperature until they change color, indicating that the moisture has been removed.Q: How long do I have to dry filament?A: There is no hard and fast rule about how long to dry out a spool of filament. For most filaments, a drying time of between four and six hours is recommended, however more hygroscopic materials like Nylon can sometimes require more time.Q: How long can I store filament before it degrades?A: The shelf life of filament can vary depending on the type of filament and the storage conditions. In general, filament can be stored for several months to a year if it is kept in an airtight container with desiccants in a cool, dry place. However, it's recommended to use the filament as soon as possible for the best print quality.<h2 dir="ltr">References</h2>[1] Banjo AD, Agrawal V, Auad ML, Celestine AD. Moisture-induced changes in the mechanical behavior of 3D printed polymers. Composites Part C: Open Access. 2022 Mar 1;7:100243. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomc.2022.100243" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomc.2022.100243</a> [Accessed November 2, 2023][2] Hackaday, 2021. “Most FDM Printers are also Filament Dryers (with a Little Help)”. [online] <a href="https://hackaday.com/2021/11/09/most-fdm-printers-are-also-filament-dryers-with-a-little-help/" target="_blank">https://hackaday.com/2021/11/09/most-fdm-printers-are-also-filament-dryers-with-a-little-help/</a> [Accessed March 1, 2022][3] Fillamentum, 2022. “Drying Filaments Before Processing”. [online] <a href="https://fillamentum.com/pages/drying-filaments-before-processing/" target="_blank">https://fillamentum.com/pages/drying-filaments-before-processing/</a> [Accessed March 1, 2022][4] Instructables, 2022. “3D Printer Filament Dry Box”. [online] <a href="https://www.instructables.com/3D-Printer-Filament-Dry-Box/" target="_blank">https://www.instructables.com/3D-Printer-Filament-Dry-Box/</a> [Accessed March 1, 2022]

Wet 3D printer filament can lead to ruined prints. Fortunately, proper storage and drying techniques can help prevent and solve the problem.

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