<p id="isPasted">Author: FERNANDO ZICARELLI (Printed Electronics Product Manager) |&nbsp;<a target="_self" href="mailto:f.zicarelli@e2ip.com" data-test-app-aware-link="">f.zicarelli@e2ip.com</a></p><p><a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/e2ip-technologies/" data-test-app-aware-link="" target="_blank">E2IP TECHNOLOGIES</a> manufactures Flexible Heaters using Screen Printing Technology. We use flexible and conformable inks for the manufacturing of our heaters. Printed heaters can be manufactured in high volumes using print processes such as flatbed, rotary, and roll-to-roll presses. The size of the order and complexity of the device determines the equipment that we would use.</p><p>Typical applications are Airplane/Automotive interiors, Battery and fuel cell heating, Hand tools, De-icing, Defogging, Medical, Display panels or touchscreens, Food and drink tempering, Heating for trains, mobile homes, and caravans.</p><figure><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1710066396502-1710066396501.png" alt="" class="fr-fic fr-dii"></figure><figure><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1710066396285-1710066396285.png" alt="" class="fr-fic fr-dii"><figcaption>Join us and the global industry in Boston on 12 &amp; 13 June 2024. Register before early bird expires on 22 March 2024. Explore program here&nbsp;</figcaption></figure><p><strong>Thermal Management Solutions</strong> is a hot topic of discussion in recent months; we at E2IP Technologies have multiple solutions for every application. We currently make 4 types of heaters: Serpentine (left picture), Resistive, PTC (right picture) and Transparent heaters (see below).</p><p>Each type has its advantages and disadvantages which are highlighted below:</p><p>&nbsp;A. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Serpentine heaters are made with metallic pastes which are screen printed with materials such as silver, copper, silver/carbon, graphene, and our own Silver Salt Minks. &nbsp;They are a very cost-effective solution since most of the time you only need one single printed layer of a serpentine pattern (as electricity flows through the conductive traces by applying specific voltage levels will cause the metal to heat up). &nbsp;These types of heaters are usually printed on PI, PC, PET, Kapton and TPUs.</p><p>&nbsp;B. Fixed Resistance heaters combined a layer of silver paste with a resistive paste to obtain the desired value. Mixing of the resistor inks is one of the most important steps in the manufacturing of these heaters. They normally require only 2 printing steps, but a dielectric layer is sometimes added to protect from physical damage. They can be printed on PI, PC, PET, Kapton and TPUs as well.</p><p>&nbsp;C. PTC heaters are made with conductive inks and a specialty formulated carbon inks (for temperature output) which are arrayed in parallel as resistors tiles. As electricity flows through the conductive traces to the carbon tiles, the temperature increases in the tiles (and so does the resistance). Both the temperature and the resistance will continue to rise until the resistance is too high for electricity to flow through (this is called the Shut-off point). Afterwards, the tiles begin to cool down until the resistance is low enough for the electricity to begin flowing again. PTC heaters normally require only 2 printing steps, but a dielectric layer is sometimes added to protect from physical damage. They can be printed on PI, PC, PET, Kapton and TPUs as well.</p><p>&nbsp;D. Transparent Heaters are new to the industry and are becoming essential for LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) and other applications. The technology sends beams of light towards and object and then it measures the time it takes for the reflections to be detected by the sensor. These heaters are printed grids of silver with different levels of line widths and pitch distances. 90-100% transparency is not needed for applications where defrosting and defogging is needed, but in the case of cameras and sensors, it is absolutely required. Very specific substrates are used for this technology as the surface tension is extremely important to be able to produce fine line patterns.</p><figure><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1710066397327-1710066397327.png" alt="" class="fr-fic fr-dii"></figure><p><br></p><p>Flexible printed heaters rely on a range of conductive, resistive, and dielectric pastes which are deposited on flexible substrates, such as thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPU), polyester (PET) and Kapton. Through specific patterns and deposition levels, our engineers tailor flexible heaters to meet specified operating parameters based on the application. Printed heaters typically have a good bend radius which is a function of the materials used and heater thickness. A good rule of thumb for a flexible printed heater is to have a minimum bend radius of 0.4 in. (1 cm). We recommend that power supplied to the heater to be constant for the temperature to remain constant.</p><p>For a Typical PTC Heater, the selection of the correct ink is essential to obtaining the desired; below you can see the temperature range and electrical specifications:</p><p><br></p><ul><li>Input voltage: 5 to 250 V (AC or DC)</li><li>Drive current: at startup less than 2 A</li><li>PTC inks available: 40°-115°C</li></ul><p><br></p><p>Thermal Management Solutions are different in most cases, we would like to encourage anyone to contact our Technical Team to discuss your application.</p><p>Author: FERNANDO ZICARELLI (Printed Electronics Product Manager) |&nbsp;<a target="_self" href="mailto:f.zicarelli@e2ip.com" data-test-app-aware-link="">f.zicarelli@e2ip.com</a></p><p><strong>Join the global industry in Boston and Berlin and let us RESHAPE the Future of Electronics.&nbsp;</strong><a target="_self" href="https://www.techblick.com/registration" data-test-app-aware-link=""><strong>Register before 22 March 2024 for early bird rates</strong></a></p><figure><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1710066397129-1710066397129.png" alt="" class="fr-fic fr-dii"></figure>

E2IP Technologies manufactures Flexible Heaters using Screen Printing Technology. This is one of the most important segments of printed and additive electronics with applications in cars, homes, and industrial settings. 

Thermal and Heating Solutions for Printed Electronics

Here's how to address extruder skipping on the Creality Ender 3 3D printer.

Here’s what to do if you notice clicking noises, under-extrusion, or other print quality issues caused by extruder skipping on the Ender 3 by Creality.

Ender 3 (V2,Pro) Extruder Skipping: Ender 3 not Extruding?

<h2 dir="ltr" id="isPasted">What are the lines in a 3D print?</h2><p dir="ltr">Every 3D-printed part's surface is made up of hundreds of separate layers. If everything is in order, those layers would appear to be one continuous and smooth surface. However, if a problem arises during the printing process with only one of such layers, the fault can be quite obvious from the print's exterior. On the sidewalls of the printed components, these incorrect layers may show as lines or ridges. Frequently, the flaws would appear in a cyclic manner, meaning that the patterns will recur (i.e. once after every 10 layers).</p><h2 dir="ltr">What are the causes for these lines to appear in a 3D print?</h2><p dir="ltr">In general, such irregular lines are generated by inaccuracy or misplacement of a single layer with respect to the subsequent layers. In any case, why does this mismatch begin to form? There are a number of reasons behind it. Let’s explore these reasons and how they affect the overall process of printing:</p><h3 dir="ltr">Over-Extrusion</h3><p dir="ltr">Over-extrusion is the main reason why a 3D print has lines. There doesn't necessarily have to be significant over-extrusion; it might simply be a small amount of additional material being pushed out when the level is printing. Over extrusion is the phenomenon that occurs when the 3D printer's nozzle extrudes far more filament over the build plate. The problem, which is associated with the extruder's flow rate, can cause a variety of issues, including leaking, blobs, and threading, in addition to poor print quality as a whole and geometric error. Interestingly, over-extrusion may occur in any FDM 3D printer, regardless of the computer system or materials used.</p><p dir="ltr">Knowing when the 3D printer is over-extruding is crucial, as is acting swiftly to address the issue. Not only may excessive extrusion lead to delays and material loss, but it may also jam the nozzle of the printer.</p><h3 dir="ltr">High Temperatures</h3><p dir="ltr">The temperature being greater than it should be is most frequently the source of over-extrusion. A large temperature differential can cause the print to appear melted, whilst a tiny one will simply cause a small quantity of undesired plastic to emerge. Some individuals print at a temperature that is far higher than is necessary. Although certain PLA filaments have a melting temperature of 180 degrees Celsius, most hobbyists prefer to work at temperatures between 200 and 215 degrees.</p><p dir="ltr">There's no denying that greater temperatures can improve layer adhesion, but it also comes with a number of problems. Blobbing and gushing are two common problems that affect individuals all over the world. In order to avoid any further problems, one should try to operate at the lowest temperature practicable. However, it’s likely too low if there is under-extrusion or poor layer adherence. &nbsp;Finding the ideal setting for the printers and filaments just requires a little time and effort but it pays off in the long run.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Abrupt Temperature Changes/Fluctuations</h3><p dir="ltr">The thermistor can cause wrong temperatures sometimes leading to difficulties printing but the temperature fluctuations create an entirely new problem. The heated end's temperature is measured via a thermistor, but the temperature setting is controlled by the PID controller. Temperature changes are typically rather obvious. &nbsp;The problem arises if the temperature changes by more than 5 degrees Celsius.</p><p dir="ltr">In such a scenario, one can attempt to re-calibrate the PID controller but to do that a manual will be required for that particular printer. But, if that doesn't work, the circuit board for the printer might need changing.</p><p dir="ltr"><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dii" style="width: 758px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjc3NDg2MDMyNDU1LXN0cmluZ2luZy5qcGciLCJlZGl0cyI6eyJyZXNpemUiOnsid2lkdGgiOjk1MCwiZml0IjoiY292ZXIifX19" width="602" height="441" class="fr-fic fr-dii"><span class="fr-inner">Error in filament extruder temperature optimization</span></span></span></p><h3 dir="ltr">Mechanical Problems</h3><p dir="ltr">Z-banding refers to the presence of horizontal lines across a 3D print's casing. These designs often reoccur every few layers. Various problems can lead to z-banding, but the main cause for z-bending is a bent lead screw. A movement may severely impact the precision of the 3D print and may result in lines across the 3D print if the printer's lead screw is distorted at particular layer heights.</p><p dir="ltr">3d printer rods wear out after long continuous use and it’ll affect the z-axis functioning. This will have an impact on the printing design and result in the lining effect. Additionally, if the wheel or the belt is out of alignment the print output might experience strange lines on the sides and surface. Another mechanical issue that might cause Z-wobble and other flaws like lines on the sides of the 3D print includes slow linear bearing.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Damaged Extruder Nozzle</h3><p dir="ltr">A damaged extruder nozzle can cause prints to have a really strange horizontal pattern on every layer. This can happen when the tip of the nozzle gets scrapped. &nbsp;It gives off an intriguing feel but also has a terrible appearance. &nbsp; Two things may cause this to happen. The primary reason is that the nozzle scratches the tip off because it is very near to the bed. The second scenario is that the user unintentionally scrapes it away while attempting to clean it.</p><p dir="ltr">Always clean the nozzle with extreme caution, especially if the metal is heated and pliable. Use one of the replacement nozzles that likely came with the printer if the original gets damaged. If the nozzle is a different size then alter the <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/best-ender-3-pro-cura-settings-temperature-speed-retraction-more" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">slicer settings</a> to adjust to the new-sized nozzle.</p><p dir="ltr"><span class="fr-img-caption fr-fic fr-dii" style="width: 758px;"><span class="fr-img-wrap"><img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNjc3NDg2MTE2ODIxLWJyYXNzX25venpsZXMuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" width="602" height="441" class="fr-fic fr-dii"><span class="fr-inner">New and used brass nozzles for 3d printer</span></span></span></p><h3 dir="ltr">Printing too Quickly</h3><p dir="ltr">An automobile will slip around a turn if it is driven too rapidly. Similarly, the print's sides will be covered with extra filament if the extruder is operating too rapidly. This may occasionally be more obvious on curved sides or it may just be present on plain edges as well where it’ll extrude more material. Whatever it is, it may likely be lessened by slowing down the printing speed.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Unstable Print Surface</h3><p dir="ltr">The printing bed or the ground the printer is placed on can both be referred to as an unstable surface. Both of these can produce ringing lines. The back-and-forth motion of the printers causes vibrations that result in ringing. If it's severe indeed, it will make the prints seem dreadful. Using clamps for the printer bed could help stabilize it. The higher the prints are, the more the bed will shift while printing.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Bad Filament Diameter Quality</h3><p dir="ltr">A 3D print failure finally occurs because uneven filament diameters impact the flow rate for filament ejection, which leads to poor surface finish, extruder jams, inconsistent gaps within individual extrusions, and excessive overlapping. Also, if the filament that is being employed isn't the same diameter that the slicer expects, the print won't look as well as it should. In reality, it may result in tiny holes, missing pieces, the excessive filament in some areas, and other problems. It is crucial that the filament adheres as closely as possible to the specification.</p><h2 dir="ltr">How to fix lines on the side of 3d prints?</h2><p dir="ltr">All the fixes for the aforementioned issues, which result in lines showing up on the 3D prints, can be found in the following subsections.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Fixing Extrusion Issues</h3><p dir="ltr">Excess filament coming out when the printer is over-extruding makes the layers thicker than they should be. To resolve this issue, one can lower the filament flow rates and/or reduce the temperature of the extruder to avoid excess melting of the filament.</p><p dir="ltr">Over time, the extruder nozzle can be subject to general wear and tear and can get damaged while scraping. In such cases, it is best to replace the nozzle with a better-quality one for extended usage. If an abrasive filament is being used for printing, opting for a hardened steel nozzle would be a better option.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Fixing Temperature-Related Issues</h3><p dir="ltr">Higher temperatures make the extrusion of plastic much easier and more fluid but without much control. To fix this problem, the printer should be operated at lower temperatures. However, if the printer is under extruding then slowly increase the temperature till the optimum temperature range for the printer has been determined.</p><p dir="ltr">Another issue is abrupt temperature changes or fluctuations resulting when the PID controller is out of tune. Making sure that the controller is properly tuned with temperature variation not greater than ±2°C. Also, a brass nozzle can be utilized to avoid such fluctuations, since it provides better thermal conductivity.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Fixing Mechanical Issues</h3><p dir="ltr">Mechanical problems like bent screws, wearing rods, and linear bearing issues can lead to z-bending. Proper maintenance of these mechanical parts can help prevent this problem. However, if the lead screw is significantly bent then it should be replaced with a high-quality screw. Also, lubricating the printer rod and properly adjusting the belt and wheel can smoothen the movements and prevent the formation of weird lines on the prints.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Fixing Issues Related to Printing Speed</h3><p dir="ltr">When the extruder is printing too quickly, it tends to deposit extra filament material on the sides. In such a scenario, one should lower the printing speed. This’ll give the proper amount of time for layers to properly adhere. One can try changing the flow rate if it is desirable or necessary to maintain the present speed. But eventually, it gets too quick for the printer, which will lead to further problems. Reduce the printing speed if it exceeds the recommended rate for the printer or tries initially modifying the flow rate and cooling if the current speed is below that.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Fixing Filament Diameter Issues</h3><p dir="ltr">Poor-quality filaments might change the extruder's feeding pressure, which can result in lines showing on the sidewalls of the 3D print. One can buy a better quality filament from a trusted provider to avoid this issue. Also, make sure that the measured diameter of the filament is within the acceptable range of the extruder nozzle.</p><h3 dir="ltr">Fixing Issues Related to Printer’s Stability</h3><p dir="ltr">The location of the printer is also important. The printer will vibrate if the stand it's on is not solid. The printer may need some vibration-absorbing soles if the lining persists even after securing the table. They are usually available at the hardware store or can also be procured from the online marketplace. Better still, the flexible filament may be used to create them. Another thing regarding vibrations to be aware of is that the higher up a tall, narrow print is, the more oscillations it will produce. Curving the print can give greater solidity and stop the ringing effect.</p><h2 dir="ltr">Key Takeaways</h2><p dir="ltr">Most people think that layer lines present in 3D-printed components are a serious issue. The extra unwanted lines and deposits in the print ruin the quality of the overall print. One may conceal or get rid of layering lines on the 3D-printed objects in a number of ways. Starting the print at a lower temperature and having the PID controller properly adjusted can prevent the excessive melting of filaments and over-extrusions. Also, it is important to maintain all the mechanical components in top-notch condition to avoid z-bending and help maintain the quality of the 3d prints. Other aspects like printing speed, filament diameters, and stability of the printer’s base should also be carefully monitored and adjusted in order to obtain a hitch-free and good-quality 3d output.</p><h2 dir="ltr">&nbsp;References</h2><ol><li dir="ltr">Lines on the Side of Print | Simplify3D Software [Internet]. Simplify3D. 2023 [cited 2023 Feb 24]. Available from:<a href="https://www.simplify3d.com/resources/print-quality-troubleshooting/lines-on-the-side-of-print/" target="_blank">&nbsp;https://www.simplify3d.com/resources/print-quality-troubleshooting/lines-on-the-side-of-print/</a></li><li dir="ltr">Boissonneault T. Dealing with Over Extrusion in 3D Printing [Internet]. Wevolver. 2022 [cited 2023 Feb 25]. Available from:<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/dealing-with-over-extrusion-in-3d-printing" target="_blank">&nbsp;https://www.wevolver.com/article/dealing-with-over-extrusion-in-3d-printing</a></li><li dir="ltr">Simmons J. Why Are There Lines on the Side of Your 3D Print? [Internet]. The 3D Bros. 2023 [cited 2023 Feb 25]. Available from:<a href="https://the3dbros.com/why-are-there-lines-on-the-side-of-my-3d-print/" target="_blank">&nbsp;https://the3dbros.com/why-are-there-lines-on-the-side-of-my-3d-print/</a></li><li dir="ltr">Admin 3dfuel. Does Filament Quality Really Matter? [Internet]. 3D-Fuel. 2020 [cited 2023 Feb 26]. Available from:<a href="https://www.3dfuel.com/blogs/news/does-filament-quality-really-matter#:~:text=If%20the%20filament%20you" target="_blank">&nbsp;https://www.3dfuel.com/blogs/news/does-filament-quality-really-matter#:~:text=If%20the%20filament%20you</a></li><li dir="ltr">Jallad S. How To Get Rid Of Lines In 3D Printing, Flow Rate and Homing in 3D printing. - 3D Print Schooling [Internet]. 3dprintschooling.com. 2021 [cited 2023 Feb 26]. Available from:<a href="https://3dprintschooling.com/how-to-get-rid-of-lines-in-3d-printing-flow-rate-and-homing-in-3d-printing/" target="_blank">&nbsp;https://3dprintschooling.com/how-to-get-rid-of-lines-in-3d-printing-flow-rate-and-homing-in-3d-printing/</a></li><li dir="ltr">Dwamena M. 9 Ways How to Get Rid of Lines on the Side of 3D Prints – 3D Printerly [Internet]. 3dPrinterly. 2023 [cited 2023 Feb 26]. Available from:<a href="https://3dprinterly.com/how-to-get-rid-of-3d-print-lines/" target="_blank">&nbsp;https://3dprinterly.com/how-to-get-rid-of-3d-print-lines/</a></li><li dir="ltr">Ahmed S. A Quick Guide To 3D Printing Without Getting Layer Lines [Internet]. 3d Gear Guide. 2022 [cited 2023 Feb 26]. Available from:<a href="https://3dgearguide.com/3d-printing-without-getting-layer-lines/" target="_blank">&nbsp;https://3dgearguide.com/3d-printing-without-getting-layer-lines/</a></li></ol>

In the world of 3D printing, lines of deposited material are the key factor in disturbing quality and aesthetics of the final print. In this article we will discuss the causes of lines in 3D Prints and how they can be avoided.

Lines in 3D Prints: How to Fix Them

<p id="isPasted"><strong>Dielectric mirrors, also called Bragg mirrors, can reflect light almost completely.&nbsp;This makes them suitable for countless applications, for example in camera systems, in microscopy, in medical technology or in sensor systems.&nbsp;Previously, these mirrors had to be manufactured in expensive vacuum equipment.&nbsp;Researchers at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) have now printed high-quality Bragg mirrors with inkjet printers for the first time.&nbsp;The process could open the way to the digital manufacture of tailor-made mirrors.&nbsp;The results appeared in Advanced Materials (&nbsp;<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/adma.202201348" target="_blank">DOI: 10.1002/adma.202201348</a> ).</strong></p><p>For Bragg mirrors, several layers of material are thinly applied to a carrier.&nbsp;These mirrors, which consist of a large number of thin layers, form an optical mirror that ensures that light of a specific wavelength is reflected in a targeted manner.&nbsp;How strongly Bragg mirrors reflect depends on the materials, but also on how many layers are applied and how thick they are.&nbsp;Previously, Bragg mirrors had to be manufactured using expensive vacuum manufacturing equipment.&nbsp;The Karlsruhe team has succeeded for the first time in printing them on different media.&nbsp;This greatly simplifies production.</p><h2><strong>Inks made from nanoparticles</strong></h2><p>&quot;It was a great challenge to develop suitable inks and to establish a reliable process for producing multiple layers,&quot; says Professor Uli Lemmer from the Light Technology Institute (LTI) of KIT, who is responsible for the project as part of the &quot;3D Matter Made to Order&quot; Cluster of Excellence. directs.&nbsp;The components of the inks must have suitable optical properties and also be soluble.&nbsp;In addition, each layer should be as even as possible to ensure a consistent stack of layers.&nbsp;In addition, the pressure must be able to be precisely controlled and the results must be reproducible in order to reliably guarantee excellent optical properties, i.e. a high reflectivity of the Bragg mirror.&nbsp;The research team relied on nanoparticles:&nbsp;&quot;Due to the rapid development in nanochemistry, nanoparticles are becoming cheaper and more diverse,&quot; says Lemmer.&nbsp;His team used a mix of two different materials, titanium dioxide and polymethyl methacrylate, as optically active components of the inks.&nbsp;Using these inks, they were able to inkjet print the optical properties and thickness of a single layer with extreme precision.&nbsp;&quot;We achieved an ultra-high reflectivity of 99 percent with just ten double layers,&quot; says Lemmer.&nbsp;to create the optical properties and thickness of a single layer with extreme precision in inkjet printing.&nbsp;&quot;We achieved an ultra-high reflectivity of 99 percent with just ten double layers,&quot; says Lemmer.&nbsp;to create the optical properties and thickness of a single layer with extreme precision in inkjet printing.&nbsp;&quot;We achieved an ultra-high reflectivity of 99 percent with just ten double layers,&quot; says Lemmer.</p><h2><strong>Printing on large and small surfaces</strong></h2><p>On the one hand, the manufacturing method developed by the researchers at the LTI can be applied to very small areas down to the range of a few micrometers, so that, for example, optical components for microsystems technology or for camera systems can be easily manufactured. On the other hand, large areas such as solar modules, facade elements or advertising displays of a few square meters can also be printed. The mirrors could even be printed on flexible plastic films. &ldquo;The completely digital manufacturing process allows the production of mirror layers that are precisely tailored to the application. This is an immense advantage compared to previous production processes,&rdquo; says Lemmer.&nbsp;</p><hr><h3><strong>original publication</strong></h3><p><em>Zhang Q, Jin Q, Mertens QA, Rainer C, Huber R, Fessler J, Hernandez-Sosa G, Lemmer U. &ldquo;Fabrication of Bragg Mirrors by Multilayer Inkjet Printing&rdquo;.&nbsp;Advanced Materials 34, 2201348 (2022).&nbsp;DOI: 10.1002/adma.202201348</em></p><p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/adma.202201348" target="_blank">https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/adma.202201348</a></p>

Colored, printed mirror layer on a film. Inkjet printing allows structuring so that large-area logos can also be printed (Photo: Qihao Jin, KIT; DOI: 10.1002/adma.202201348)

KIT researchers are developing a process with which, for the first time, mirrors with a reflection of more than 99 percent can be printed in variable sizes

printheads