<h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-4-0">Introduction</h2>Power MOSFETs play a key role in a range of common high power applications with a particularly essential position in the automotive industry due to their fast switching speed, easy advanced paralleling capability, low gate drive power, wide bandwidth, ruggedness, ease of application, and relative ease of repair.&nbsp;One often an under-discussed aspect of power MOSFETs is their thermal performance.Thermal system optimization is increasingly important in relation to electrical optimization as the power requirements in their applications increase. Additionally, a MOSFETs strong thermal performance is essential for reliability.<h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-5-0">Why is thermal important?</h2>In power-electronic systems, temperature is one of the critical parameters because many properties of power semiconductors are temperature-dependent. For example, the lifetime of semiconductor components is strongly affected by temperature fluctuations due to loading. Each change in temperature causes mechanical stress in the component which affects solder and bond connections. In this type of scenario, the emphasis is not on the maximum or minimum temperature that the device can withstand but the temperature cycling or switching between temperatures that is most critical to reliability and performance.[1]<h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-6-0">Applications for high power MOSFETs</h2>Not all Power MOSFETs are suitable for the demanding power requirements of modern <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/2020.autonomous.vehicle.technology.report" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">automotive design</a> and cutting edge industrial applications. Only MOSFETs that can perform reliably under tough thermal conditions will be part of these developing industries.The use of electronic control units (ECU’s) has increased in automotive applications as one method of reducing weight and increasing the efficiency of vehicles. A good example of this is in <a href="https://www.nexperia.com/products/mosfets/automotive-mosfets/family/ELECTRIC-POWER-STEERING/#/p=1,s=0,f=,c=,rpp=,fs=0,sc=,so=,es=" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">power steering</a> which has transitioned from conventional oil pressure control to DC motors that use electronic control or electric power steering ECU’s.&nbsp;<div class="fr-img-space-wrap"><img class="fr-fic fr-dib" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk5MjE3NDE5MTI0LWNvbXBsZWV0XzFfc3RlZXIucG5nIiwgImVkaXRzIjogeyJyZXNpemUiOiB7IndpZHRoIjogOTUwLCAiZml0IjogImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 788px;">Figure 1: Power steering now uses sophisticated ECU's.&nbsp;</div>Another application for power MOSFETs with strong thermal performance is in <a href="https://www.nexperia.com/applications/automotive/anti-locking-braking-systems.html" target="_blank">ABS braking systems</a>. Anti-locking braking systems help vehicles maintain contact with the road surface and prevent skidding in conditions such as icy or wet roads. When the driver applies braking the ABS responds many times every second, to changes in the rotational speed of each wheel. Reducing or increasing brake pressure as necessary to maintain control. A pump motor is used to re-pressurize the systems when the ABS system operates. MOSFETs in this application must be reliable and rugged enough to withstand both the high external temperature of the vehicle itself as well as manage the switching load while maintaining thermal efficiency.These examples, as well as other automotive applications such as DC/DC conversion and reverse battery protection, have fed the demand for improved performance of power MOSFETs used in the switching device in ECUs.Outside of the automotive industry power MOSFETs with exceptional thermal performance are required for battery-powered power tools, power supply equipment, and telecom infrastructure.<h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-7-0">Copper clip</h2>All MOSFET designers face the same challenges of trying to reduce the MOSFET resistance, it's switching capability and also it's Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) to result in a MOSFET with very low resistance and very good switching performance while not producing any radiated electromagnetic interference.To meet the demand for high power with appropriate thermal properties MOSFET designers are rethinking traditional wirebond interconnects and moving towards copper clips for internal bonding. In clip-bonding technology, a solid copper bridge is attached to the die surface replacing multiple bonded wires.[2] Copper clip offers many advantages, which can offer significant improvements to MOSFET electrical and thermal properties, including increased maximum current capacity and excellent current diffusion, improved RDSon, low source inductance, and low thermal resistance (Rth).<h2 data-headingsmap-highlight="true" data-element-id="headingsMap-8-0">Introducing LFPAK MOSFETs</h2>In 2002, Nexperia teamed up with Hitachi to improve on the current power MOSFET solutions. From that cooperation came the <a href="https://youtu.be/IPvCtkeg35I?list=PL02JC46HY5hbLjEEk_d859Xv6iDicinsE" target="_blank">LFPAK family of power MOSFETs</a>. The LFPAK groups are a copper clip package that concretely addresses the limitations of previous MOSFET designs.Let’s take a closer look at the physical design of the LFPAK. First, it has a very big source connection which provides a very low package resistance, it also has very short leads which help reduce the package resistance and inductance of the top clip. The new design has three source connections leads which greatly contribute to improving the current capability of the package. Previous DPAK designs were limited to 120 amps, but the smaller LFPAK is capable of as much as 300 amps.<iframe width="1280" height="720" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/-UkVlJq-9sA?enablejsapi=1&amp;origin=https://www.wevolver.com" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" data-gtm-yt-inspected-31="true" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-gtm-yt-inspected-34="true" id="597458571" title="LFPAK88: The automotive Power MOSFET driving power density to the next level"></iframe><h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-10-0">Current spreading</h2>In the LFPAK, the packaged resistance is improved by about 90 percent compared to the DPAK. From a current handling capability, it's not just about the maximum current the device can handle but about current spreading. With a typical internal wire-bonded package in a short circuit condition or a locked rotor condition, there will be a large inrush currents over short time periods so all the heat and current is crowding around the wire bonds resulting in very high current densities there and very little current density elsewhere in the device. This means local heating is created around the wire bonds and the full entitlement of the silicon is not gained in the application.Compare this to the LFPAK - because it has the big source connection- the current spreads equally over the top surface of the device and get very good short-circuit handling capability is achieved compared to traditionally get with wire-bonded packages.&nbsp;<div class="fr-img-space-wrap"><img class="fr-fic fr-dib" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk5MjE3NTEwNzEyLUxGUEFLNTZfUE9JTlRFUlMuanBnIiwgImVkaXRzIjogeyJyZXNpemUiOiB7IndpZHRoIjogOTUwLCAiZml0IjogImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 788px;">Figure 2: LFPAK&nbsp;</div><h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-11-0">Leaded advantages</h2>Nexperia is one of the suppliers that offer a copper clip leaded device. One of the key advantages of using a leaded device is the ability to use standard optical inspection equipment to examine the exposed leads. The solder joints are easily examined without needing expensive x-ray equipment and the top tabs solder joint is also easily inspected.Another important aspect of the LFPAK design is that the exposed leads allow for wave soldering which can play a significant role in achieving reliability under stress. When a PC board goes through significant temperature cycles it will expand and contract and bend in response to the thermal conditions. In a scenario where a leadless package is fixed, with no flexibility in the lead, the repeated movements of the board can lead to the plastic at the join can crack posing a risk of contamination getting into the package or moisture ingress which can cause parametric shifts or even device failure.&nbsp;In the instance of using the LFPAK or other leaded packages in the same demanding conditions, the leads act as a shock absorber for the movement. So as the PC board expands and contracts and bends, the leads expand and contract with it and absorb all of the flexing in the PC board. Trials of the LPAK have put the package through more than 2,000 temperature cycles and shown no degradation of the solder joint.<h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-12-0">Thermal performance</h2>One crucial area where the LFPAK differs from the DPAK family is its thermal performance. Smaller devices are preferred thanks to the space-saving they give, however, they also raise the valid concern about their thermal performance, and in applications where thermal performance is of primary importance, larger packages are generally chosen. However, the LFPAK family of MOSFETs demonstrates that high thermal performance is available in a small package.A MOSFET in a fuel injection application in which thermal is a key element is a good example to examine this. In basic terms a fuel injection application is a MOSFET repetitively driving a solenoid load, switching it on and off. The timing and the clean turn on and turn off is of paramount importance. Because a solenoid is an inductive load, the turning off of the inductive load means the MOSFET is operating in avalanche mode. Avalanche mode refers to a considerable amount of current going through the MOSFET, hence why the thermal performance is key.<h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-13-0">Thermal Simulation</h2><a href="https://youtu.be/ASC4zvJKSFE" target="_blank">RC thermal simulation</a> of MOSFETs is an important tool for early design validation, allowing engineers to quickly check the device is suitable for the power and temperatures associated with the application. Currently, circuit simulators - which use mathematical models to replicate the behavior of an actual electronic device or circuit - are standard tools in the development and optimization of electronic systems. However, simulation has until now been limited to electronic functions because, in the simulation models available today, temperature dependence is generally limited to changing the static global temperature. Nexperia offers designers easy to use tools to better understand the <a href="http://assets.nexperia.cn/documents/application-note/AN11261.pdf" target="_blank" data-lf-fd-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true">thermal requirements</a> and limits of their designs by providing the Foster RC Thermal models for all Power MOSFETs.<h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-14-0">The LFPAK family</h2>There are six products in the LFPAK portfolio. The LFPAK88 replaces the larger wire-bonded power packages such as D²PAK and D²PAK-7. It has an 8 x 8 mm footprint, - a physical footprint reduction of 60%, with a 64% lower profile.The LFPAK88 copper-clip and solder die construction results in low electrical &amp; thermal resistance, good current spreading, and heat dispersal. The maximum rating of 425 A and low RDS (on) of 0.7 mΩ in small package size, presents a power density of 48 times when compared to D²PAK devices.Finally, the LFPAK88 offers unique low-stress gull-wing leads which create a rugged and thermally robust package and delivers reliability levels more than two times better than is required by the automotive standard AEC-Q101.<div class="fr-img-space-wrap"><img class="fr-fic fr-dib" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk5MjE2ODkxMTM2LVJTMTE4Nl9MRlBBSzg4X2NvbWJpbmVkLnBuZyIsICJlZGl0cyI6IHsicmVzaXplIjogeyJ3aWR0aCI6IDk1MCwgImZpdCI6ICJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 788px;">Figure 3: LFPAK88.</div><h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-15-0">Conclusion</h2>Power MOSFETs for automotive and industrial innovation need to offer a growing range of features including soft-start, live insertion, short-circuit resilience, avalanche ruggedness, and careful thermal management. Attention will be increasingly given to various thermal simulation models as the power density demands of these applications rises. MOSFET packages that can provide performance, reliability, and proven AEC-Q101 quality will play a key role in pushing innovation.<hr><h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-16-0">About the sponsor: Nexperia</h2>Semiconductor manufacturer Nexperia is tackling the demand for strong thermally performing MOSFETs for the automotive industry. They are developing products that take advantage of copper clip technology to produce packages with very low resistance and solid switching performance while not producing any radiated electromagnetic interference.The Nexperia LFPAK products such as the LFPAK88 are ready for use in the automotive industry and perform to AEC-Q101 standard qualification standards.&nbsp;<img class="fr-fic fr-dib" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk5MjE2NzY0MDA2LVVudGl0bGVkLTMuanBnIiwgImVkaXRzIjogeyJyZXNpemUiOiB7IndpZHRoIjogOTUwLCAiZml0IjogImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 100px;"> <hr><h2 data-element-id="headingsMap-17-0">References</h2>1. Thermal Modeling of Power-electronic Systems [Internet]. Munich: Fraunhofer; 2000. Available from: https://www.iisb.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/iisb2014/en/Documents/Research-Areas/Energy_Electronics/publications_patents_downloads/Publications/Therm_Modelling_2000_IISB.pdf&nbsp;2. Copper Clip Package for high performance MOSFETs and its optimization [Internet]. Singapore: United Test and Assembly Center Ltd; 2016. Available from:https://www.utacgroup.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Copper-Clip-Package-for-high-performance-MOSFETs.pdf

Thermal system optimization is increasingly important as the power requirements of MOSFET applications increase.

Next-generation MOSFET technology Meets Demand for Strong Thermal Performance in Automotive Applications.

<h1 dir="ltr">Voice in devices</h1>A voice user interface (VUI) &nbsp;allows you to interact with a device, such as a computer, smartphone, or home appliance by simply talking to it. VUIs allow you to ask Siri the weather, request Alexa to play a song, or tell your smart globe to dim the lights without ever touching anything. &nbsp;The history of voice commands goes back to the early 1950s when Bell Laboratories introduced the &ldquo;Audrey&rdquo; system, which could recognize a single voice speaking ten digits aloud. About a decade later, IBM designed <a href="https://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/specialprod1/specialprod1_7.html" target="_blank">&ldquo;Shoebox,&rdquo;</a> a computer that understood and responded to 16 words in English.Interestingly, one of the first widely available consumer products with voice recognition was a children&rsquo;s toy, the infamous Julie Doll, which could understand eight vocal sounds as commands.<iframe allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" frameborder="0" height="648" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ewu_NBUHePU?enablejsapi=1&origin=https://www.wevolver.com" width="864" data-lf-form-tracking-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-yt-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-lf-vimeo-playback-inspected-kn9eq4roawkarlvp="true" data-gtm-yt-inspected-9="true" id="271065592" title="The 1987 Voice First Doll: Julie by Worlds of Wonder Commercial"></iframe>In 2011, Apple released Siri, opening the way to a range of other digital assistants in smartphones, stand-alone devices, and laptops.&nbsp;The advent of Siri and her voice assistant colleagues happened thanks to cloud computing which allowed the complex processing required to synthesize speech to occur in a remote data center with massive computing power.&nbsp;We are becoming more familiar with operating devices using our voice especially in mostly private settings such as in our cars or houses. VUI is currently <a href="https://www.dbswebsite.com/blog/trends-in-voice-search/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">estimated</a> to be in almost 3 billion devices worldwide and is expected to soar to 8 billion by the end of 2035.<h1 dir="ltr">Processing at the edge</h1>Alexa is constantly waiting patiently for your commands. However, she can&rsquo;t be constantly recording you and analyzing every sound in your house to check if it is a command. This would not only cause extreme crowding in the cloud, but it would pose a significant security issue. Instead, Alexa is only listening for &nbsp;&ldquo;wake words,&rdquo; - in her case &ldquo;Alexa,&rdquo; - which then wakes up her full system, activating her full voice recognition power. When you then ask Alexa to give you a weather report, your voice is recorded and sent over the Internet to Amazon&#39;s Alexa Voice Services, which <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Alexa" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">parses</a> the recording into commands. &nbsp;The system then sends the relevant output back to your device and you can plan your outfit accordingly. Alexa responding to your wake command is known as edge processing, which happens on the processor in the device, while the weather request is cloud processing and occurs in a data center connected to your home via the Internet.Not all voice command devices need to be connected to the Internet. Advances in edge processing mean more complex commands can be processed on the device that are free from a cloud connection, enabling faster computation with less latency and more security. Thanks to the development of ultra-low-power chips that can do neural network processing on the device, voice commands can be added to almost any device, including super small earbuds and wearables.&nbsp;<h1 dir="ltr">Why voice is important</h1>&ldquo;Speech is the fundamental means of human communication,&rdquo; <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/wired-speech" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">writes</a> Clifford Nass, Stanford researcher and co-author of Wired for Speech. Nass illustrates how humans are wired for speech and verbal communication, and provides insight into how voice offers a fast, intuitive method of accessing technology and navigating through its functions.&nbsp;Voice isn&rsquo;t just a more intuitive method of communicating with technology, it also offers an opportunity for using devices in new ways under new circumstances.Because speech requires less cognitive abilities than a touchscreen, voice-enabled devices allow a user to continue to concentrate on a task and issue commands rather than reallocate precious thinking resources to solve a tactile interface. Workers in highly concentrated environments, such as surgery, factory floors, and labs, could be assisted by voice-enabled robots to pass them tools, read charts, or monitor their health.&nbsp;These qualities can be extended to all users of voice interface devices, making our interaction with technology more enjoyable, more intuitive, and more personal.&nbsp;At last year&rsquo;s CES, &nbsp;a very expensive <a href="https://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/330448/kohlers-new-smart-toilet-earns-ces-sitting-ovatio.html#:~:text=Marketing%20a%20%E2%80%9Csmart%E2%80%9D%20something%20is%20quite%20the%20trend.&text=Numi%202.0%20intelligent%20toilet%20with%20KOHLER%20Konnect%20is%20Kohler's%20most%20advanced%20toilet." rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">toilet</a> that flushed via voice command was exhibited. While the demonstration seemed like a humorous application of technology in the moment, in today&rsquo;s new age of extra sanitary caution it could be lifesaving.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk2MjAwMTM0NDIzLXZvaWNlIHRvaWxldC5qcGciLCAiZWRpdHMiOiB7InJlc2l6ZSI6IHsid2lkdGgiOiA5NTAsICJmaXQiOiAiY292ZXIifX19">Image: Kohler<h1 dir="ltr">New audiences</h1>Voice command offers opportunities to introduce new and existing technologies to audiences in several ways. First, voice command devices can be easier to learn and more intuitive to use, so increasing technological skills across the globe. Additionally, &nbsp;voice control brings technology to people who have been overlooked by touch interfaces, such as people with <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275406227_Self_Assistive_Technology_for_Disabled_People_-_Voice_Controlled_Wheel_Chair_and_Home_Automation_System" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">disabilities</a> and the elderly, as well as to audiences who have been left out of cloud anchored devices due to the lack of a reliable Internet connection. Voice command functionality also opens possibilities for people with neural diversity to interact with devices, such as touch tablets, whose logic can cause confusion and frustration. [1]&nbsp;Users with physical limitations, such as reduced arm and finger dexterity, vision impairment, or blindness, may be able to naturally and easily interact with devices using their voice without additional adaptation to meet their needs. While many <a href="https://www.sesame-enable.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">tools</a> have been built for users with vision impairment and blindness access, devices that are brought to market with integrated voice commands reduce the gap that can open between product launch and ability adoption. It can also reduce the cost of technology that is made especially for less able audiences. These applications can range from asking your Kindle to read you a book to managing the temperature of your home.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk2MTk4NDE1NDgxLWFsZXhhIG9uIGNsYXNzcm9vbS5qcGciLCAiZWRpdHMiOiB7InJlc2l6ZSI6IHsid2lkdGgiOiA5NTAsICJmaXQiOiAiY292ZXIifX19">Voice interface provides new ways to deliver education. Image: Bob WilliamsEdge processing means sophisticated voice command devices can be introduced into devices for use in remote areas where Internet service is limited. This may bring voice command devices to remote communities that could improve education and training. It could also open possibilities for voice command devices, such as search and rescue robots, archeological equipment, and environmental monitoring systems.&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk2MTk4MjgwNjYxLWtpZCBsaXN0ZW5pbmcgdm9pY2UgYXNzaXN0LmpwZyIsICJlZGl0cyI6IHsicmVzaXplIjogeyJ3aWR0aCI6IDk1MCwgImZpdCI6ICJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=" style="width: 788px;">Voice command offers alternative ways to interact with common technology.&nbsp;<h1 dir="ltr">New Applications Due to Edge Processing of AI</h1>Advanced edge computing is available in large part due to the speed and power of the latest AI semiconductors used in voice processing. These chips have ultra-low power consumption, which makes them suitable for use in almost any portable device, from Bluetooth earbuds to smartphones to wearable health devices. The next generation of voice command devices will have the advantages of <a href="https://www.syntiant.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">on-device processing</a>. This proximity to end-users means designers can use embedded computing resources to build behavioral-based messaging, offers, and experiences, without compromising privacy or relying on cloud connectivity. These devices will be:<h2 dir="ltr">Secure</h2>No cloud requirement means voice command devices can be highly secure, operating without a network connection. Voice-recognition has the chance to become the most secure biomarkers we possess. With more AI-enabled devices on the market, voice can become part of dynamic encryption mechanisms that can provide different levels of devices in different locations. &nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Fast with low latency</h2>One of the biggest advantages of on edge processing is the shrinking of latency, the measurement of how long it takes for a data packet to travel from its point of origin to its destination. By resolving more processes closer to the source and relaying less data back to the center of the network, AI-enabled edge devices can greatly improve performance and speed.&nbsp;<h2 dir="ltr">Private</h2>AI-powered edge processing allows for a user&#39;s data to be stored on a personal device rather than in a remote data centre. This not only meets increasing consumer demand for more control and ownership over their personal data, but it also makes it much easier to meet emerging legislation requirements such as the EU&rsquo;s General Data Privacy Regulation (GDPR).&nbsp;<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNTk2MTk4MDA0MjE5LTE3MjEwNV9Wb2x2b19NaWNyb3NvZnRfQmFuZF8yLmpwZyIsICJlZGl0cyI6IHsicmVzaXplIjogeyJ3aWR0aCI6IDk1MCwgImZpdCI6ICJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=">Voice can be added securely to wearables without the need for a cloud connection. Image: Volvo&nbsp;<h1>Conclusion</h1>Voice control devices have the potential to enhance the way we communicate with current technology and create new ways of interacting with our environment.&nbsp;Highly powerful, low-energy, AI-enabled chips mean voice interfaces can now be added to anything, anywhere - with and without the cloud.Recommended reading:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/neural-network-architectures-at-the-edge-modelling-for-energy-efficiency-and-machine-learning-performance" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Neural Network Architectures at the Edge: Modelling for Energy Efficiency and Machine Learning Performance</a>As &lsquo;no-touch&rsquo; rules and etiquette become essential for public health, how can voice command bring us closer and keep us safe? How would our attitude and experience of working closely with machines change if we can communicate with our most instinctive method? And what technologies can be introduced to audiences who have been overlooked by the complexity and necessary dexterity of touch interfaces?<hr><h1 dir="ltr">About the sponsor: Syntiant</h1><h2>Voice at the edge.</h2>Semiconductor company&nbsp;<a href="https://www.syntiant.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Syntiant</a>&nbsp;is pushing forward voice at the edge possibilities with the development of the Neural Decision Processors&trade; (NDP10x). These high power devices offer highly accurate wake word, command word, and event detection in a tiny package with near-zero power consumption.&nbsp;Currently, in production with Amazon&rsquo;s Alexa Voice Service firmware, the NDP10x family makes Always-On Voice interfaces a reality by supporting entirely new form factors designed to wake up and respond to speech rather than touch. These processors will move voice interfaces from the cloud on to devices of all sizes and types, including ultra-portable wearables and devices.<img class="fr-fic fr-dib" src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiAid2V2b2x2ZXItcHJvamVjdC1pbWFnZXMiLCAia2V5IjogImZyb2FsYS8xNjAwMTczODc0NzY0LXN5bnRpYW50IGxvZ28uanBnIiwgImVkaXRzIjogeyJyZXNpemUiOiB7IndpZHRoIjogOTUwLCAiZml0IjogImNvdmVyIn19fQ==" style="width: 788px;"> <hr><h1 dir="ltr">References</h1>1. Balasuriya S, Sitbon L, Bayor A, Hoogstrate M, Brereton M. Use of voice activated interfaces by people with intellectual disability. Proceedings of the 30th Australian Conference on Computer-Human Interaction. 2018;.&nbsp;2. Pyae A, Joelsson T. Investigating the usability and user experiences of voice user interface. Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services Adjunct - MobileHCI &#39;18. 2018;.

AI-powered edge processing opens possibilities for voice command on any device.

Voice At The Edge Helps Technology Work For More People

<h1 dir="ltr">What is GaN Technology?</h1>Gallium Nitride (GaN) is a material with high heat capacity and thermal conductivity used in the production of semiconductor power devices such as GaN FET (field-effect transistor).&nbsp;GaN semiconductors are poised to replace silicon as the semiconductor of choice for high voltage power devices as they can operate at higher frequencies, with increased efficiency and higher power density - providing the basis to create smaller, more efficient, and more robust power devices.&nbsp;These attributes are largely thanks to GaN’s wide band gap. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_gap#In_semiconductor_physics" target="_blank">Band gap</a> is an energy range between a semiconductor’s valence band and conduction band where electron states are forbidden. A wide band gap allows devices to operate at much higher voltages, frequencies, and temperatures than conventional semiconductors. GaN has a band gap of 3.2 eV, in comparison, silicon has a bandgap of just 1.1 eV.GaN is successfully applied in RF (Radio Frequency) components, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs). The blue light in your old BluRay player is created using a GaN-based violet laser diode. It’s also present in solar cells for photovoltaic systems and is an essential component of energy-efficient LED globes. GaN is used in radiation-hardened transistors for satellites and is quickly replacing silicon in this area due to its small physical die size. GaN microwave<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0026271418304815" target="_blank">&nbsp;transistors</a> will be onboard <a href="https://earth.esa.int/web/guest/missions/esa-future-missions/biomass" target="_blank">The Earth Explorer Biomass</a> satellite set to launch 2021 which will provide global maps of the amount of carbon stored in the world's forests. GaN is also showing up in consumer power devices such as lightning-fast mobile and laptop <a href="https://www.gizmochina.com/2020/04/09/huawei-65w-gan-charger-launched/" target="_blank">chargers</a>.The automotive industry is the next challenge for GaN to tackle. Although proven to outperform reliable silicon, the question remains if GaN can deliver the quality, reliability, and scalability in manufacturing required by the demanding automotive market.&nbsp;<h1 dir="ltr">But Wait, What’s Wrong With Silicon?</h1>It is widely accepted that silicon is reaching its physical limit. While continuing to be a highly reliable semiconductor material in many applications, silicon is limited when it comes to high-frequency switching and power density. Some incremental improvements in silicon increase some parameters but these improvements generally result in a loss in other parameters. This means new silicon uses will become more application-specific where these losses have less of an impact. Even with incremental gains, it is clear, there is a near-future limit on power density and frequency available from silicon.&nbsp;The limitations of silicon in high-frequency and high power applications were seen early by the industry and investigations into other materials have been progressing in the background for decades. One of the <a href="https://www.arrow.com/en/research-and-events/articles/silicon-carbide-and-gallium-nitride-compared" target="_blank">leading contenders&nbsp;</a>is GaN - outperforming silicon for higher voltage applications in most comparisons even when it's in early maturity stages.&nbsp;<iframe allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/PP6DrOzxX-Q" style="width: 801px; height: 447px;" frameborder="0"></iframe> GaN’s significantly wider bandgap means current can travel faster through GaN semiconductors, ensuring greater efficiency and fewer switching losses when they are used in hard switching applications. They also lose less power when devices are charged and discharged thanks to having less capacitance than silicon metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). Finally, they also take up much less space on circuit boards pushing open the opportunity for smaller and smaller appliances.&nbsp;Silicon most likely will continue to remain king in lower power and lower frequency devices as well as processing applications but with the electrification of rapidly advancing industries such as automotive, space, and the military more robust alternatives such as Gallium Nitride are required.<h1 dir="ltr">GaN: the good, the bad, and the better&nbsp;</h1>GaN was first explored in the 1990s but its maturation has been slow due to some key challenges. Developing a reliable and consistent manufacturing process for GaN has been difficult in comparison to the reliability of silicon.Gallium Nitride contains a massive number of crystal defects over a small area compared to silicon which contains as low as 100 defects per square centimeter. Only very recently have researchers been able to manufacture GaN effectively with fewer than one billion defects/cm. This problem has been largely overcome but the cost to produce the same amount of GaN wafers compared to silicon is still notably higher.&nbsp;A successful strategy for GaN development while maintaining the large-production ability of silicon is GaN-on-Si. Thick GaN epitaxial layers are grown on large silicon substrates in standard 150 mm (6 inch) fabs. GaN-on-Si offers true scalability with manufacturing confidence.&nbsp;<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1593420372806-shutterstock_687161686+%28100px%29.jpg">A silicon wafer <h1 dir="ltr">GaN in the Automotive Industry</h1>The automotive industry is quickly electrifying with a global number of electric passenger cars passing 5 million in 2018, an increase of 63% from the previous year. Positive forecasts suggest electric vehicle (EV) sales will reach <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2019" target="_blank">44 million vehicles&nbsp;</a>per year by 2030.For this growth to continue, electric cars are being pushed to be both more efficient and lower cost.&nbsp;Despite headway being made towards more efficient, lighter, and smaller batteries - this core feature of EVs remains the number one obstacle to overcome before the introduction of the next generation of cheaper and more efficient vehicles.&nbsp;While battery development grinds away, innovation is driving major powertrain improvements. Efficiency increases in each component of an EV powertrain can have a significant impact on the overall efficiency of the vehicle through a reduction in weight and overall smaller physical size allowing for alternative design layouts.&nbsp;<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1593419898584-Nexperia-GaN-FET+02.jpg">GaN FETs <h2 dir="ltr">GaN Powertrain Components</h2>GaN delivers on smaller, more efficient, and lower-cost power systems thanks to its ability to offer lower switching loss, faster-switching speeds, increased power density, and improved thermal budgets. The power density and efficiency of <a href="https://assets.nexperia.com/documents/brochure/nexperia_brochure_gan_202006.pdf" target="_blank">GaN</a> will have the biggest impact in three areas of electric vehicle and hybrid vehicle design.&nbsp;<ul><li dir="ltr">Onboard ChargerAn on-board charger (OBC) in an EV or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is used to charge the traction battery. The On-Board charger system converts the AC power from the grid to a DC input which charges the battery. Using GaN semiconductors can result in OBC’s that are <a href="https://www.prnewswire.com/il/news-releases/visics-smallest-6-7kw-on-board-charger-reference-design-300814720.html" target="_blank">lighter and smaller</a> than their current physical size. This decrease in size and weight indirectly provides the vehicle with a longer driving range via an overall decrease in vehicle weight. Improved OBC efficiency will also reduce car charging times. Currently, a full charge at a 50 kW charging station takes about 50 minutes and gives a driving range of about 200 Km (125 miles). Fine for commuters, but a huge deterrent for people looking to make longer trips. The goal for the industry is to reach 35 kW charging stations that would drop the charging time down to less than ten minutes, the perfect restroom or coffee break time - and a comparable time to what we now experience stopping for petrol for a combustion engine vehicle.</li><li dir="ltr">DC-DC ConverterDC-DC converter bridges the high-voltage battery pack with the vehicle’s low voltage auxiliary circuits. The use of GaN semiconductors in DC-DC converters result in devices that are highly efficient, reducing loss and wasted power to heat, and featuring best in class power density. This one <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/7855159/similar#similar" target="_blank">efficient design change</a> contributes significantly to the overall weight decrease of the car resulting in better range.&nbsp;</li><li dir="ltr">Traction InverterWithin an electric vehicle’s drivetrain, the traction inverter converts DC current from the battery to AC current used by the motor to power the vehicle’s propulsion system. The most common three-phase <a href="https://www.electricmotorengineering.com/an-electric-motor-works-car/" target="_blank">AC motors</a> used in today’s EVs run at voltages up to 1,000 V and switching frequencies up to 20 kHz. This configuration bumps close to the current operational limits of the silicon-based MOSFETs and insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) currently used in traction inverters.&nbsp;</li></ul>GaN technology pushes past these limits. A highly efficient traction inverter with GaN components provides longer range, fewer charging cycles, and extended battery life with similar battery costs. Operating at 30 kHz it provides the opportunity to use smaller, more efficient, and powerful electric motors and consequently smaller, cheaper, and lighter batteries to achieve the same driving range. These improvements would help enable manufacturers to get closer to price parity with internal combustion engine vehicles and thus extending the market reach of Evs&nbsp;<img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1593420503427-02.png">A 50kW GaN traction inverter on a test bank <h1 dir="ltr">Conclusion</h1>GaN semiconductor power devices will usher in a new era of electric vehicle powertrain components that will deliver more efficient vehicles. Innovative collaborations between semiconductor manufacturers and automotive companies will drive innovation and speed up the technology adoption. The full potential of GaN semiconductor power components is likely to be fully realized within the next decade, paving the way to a greener and more efficient future.&nbsp;<hr><h1 dir="ltr">About the sponsor: Nexperia&nbsp;</h1><h2 dir="ltr">Power GaN FET solutions</h2>Semiconductor manufacturer Nexperia is tackling the manufacturing issues of GaN by developing processes that utilize existing Si-based technology and infrastructure ready for large volume mass production. While the technology is still in early maturity stages it has proven its robustness for commercial application and the best is yet to come. Nexperia Power GaN products such as the GAN063-650WSA are primed for use in the automotive industry and already perform to AEC-Q101 standard qualification standards.&nbsp;Research and development show promising results for GaN’s success in EV traction inverters. To close the gap between the lab and an applied tested product, Nexperia, has <a href="https://www.nexperia.com/about/news-events/press-releases/nexperia-partners-with-ricardo-to-develop-gan-based-ev-inverter-design.html" target="_blank">teamed up</a> with Ricardo, an automotive engineering consulting company, to put its GaN devices into a 50 kW EV traction inverter for extensive testing. The collaboration is rigorously testing the GaN components to look for any possible weaknesses or failure points in an applied EV setting.&nbsp;The project also works to demonstrate to the wider automotive industry the huge potential of GaN. The results of the project, which we expect to see later in 2020 and early 2021 will be of interest to a lot of automotive designers and provide real value to the industry as a whole. &nbsp;<iframe allowfullscreen="" class="fr-draggable" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/QAxY43x4jLg" style="width: 788px; height: 447px;" frameborder="0"></iframe><hr><h1 dir="ltr">Curious about GaN and its applications in the automotive industry?&nbsp;</h1>2-3 July 2020, Nexperia is hosting an&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nexperia.com/nexperia-power-live-event.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">online event called 'Power Live'&nbsp;</a>to share knowledge about their work on power semiconductors. One of the event's 4 tracks is completely dedicated to GaN, and the 'automotive' and 'packages' tracks also cover GaN.&nbsp;Engineers of Nexperia and their partner Ricardo will share share their insights: From tackling common application issues with GaN FETs to a deep dive into the development of their GaN based traction inverter. You can read more and register for Nexperia’s Power Live Event <a href="https://www.nexperia.com/nexperia-live-power-event-registration.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">here</a>.

Offering high power performance and high-frequency switching, GaN semiconductors present huge potential.

Are GaN semiconductor power components ready for automotive?

For many years, silicon Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) have been seen as a promising and innovative security technology that was making steady progress. Today, Static Random-Access Memory (SRAM-)based PUFs offer a mature and viable security component that is achieving widespread adoption in commercial products. They are found in devices ranging from tiny sensors and microcontrollers to high-performance Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) and secure elements where they protect financial transactions, user privacy, and military secrets.<h2>Physical Unclonable Function (PUF)</h2><ul><li>A PUF provides a way to authenticate electronic devices or chips and generate cryptographic keys from their unclonable silicon fingerprint.</li><li>It uses uncontrollable deep-submicron variations from manufacturing to derive a stable, unclonable, and unique device identity.</li></ul><h2>Benefits of SRAM PUF</h2><ul><li>No need to program keys or obtain entropy externally.</li><li>No secrets stored in device when power is off.</li><li>Keys and identifiers based on unclonable silicon structure.</li><li>Uses existing, standard hardware (SRAM) as PUF.</li></ul><h2>Reliability and Certification</h2><ul><li>Advanced error correction.</li><li>Based on years of extensive reliability testing across technology nodes and operating environments.</li><li>Devices using SRAM PUFs have been government vetted and certified EMVCo-Visa and CC EAL6+.</li></ul><h2>Application Markets</h2><ul><li>Smartcard, FPGA</li><li>Sensors, microcontrollers</li><li>Mobile, automotive, IoT</li></ul><h1>The SRAM-based PUF</h1>Due to deep submicron manufacturing process variations, every transistor in an Integrated Circuit (IC) has slightly different physical properties. These lead to small but measurable differences in terms of electronic properties, such as transistor threshold voltages and gain factor. Since these process variations are not fully controllable during manufacturing, these physical device properties cannot be copied or cloned.Threshold voltages are susceptible to environmental conditions such as temperature, and voltage so their values cannot be used directly as unique secret keys or identifiers.&nbsp;The behavior of an SRAM cell, on the other hand, depends on the difference of the threshold voltages of its transistors. Even the smallest differences will be amplified and push the SRAM cell into one of two stable states. Its PUF behavior is therefore much more stable than the underlying threshold voltages, making it the most straightforward and most stable way to use the threshold voltages to build an identifier.<h2><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1591264573768-SRAM_behavior2.png">Figure 1: Extracting a strong secret key from SRAM behavior.&nbsp;</h2><h2>SRAM PUF Behavior</h2>An SRAM memory consists of a number of SRAM cells. Each SRAM cell consists of two cross-coupled inverters that each are built up by a p- and n-MOS transistor. When power is applied to an SRAM cell, its logical state is determined by the relation between the threshold voltages of the p-MOS transistors in the invertors. The transistor that starts conducting first determines the outcome, a logical &#39;0&#39; or &#39;1&#39;.It turns out that every SRAM cell has its own preferred state every time the SRAM is powered resulting from the random differences in the threshold voltages. This preference is independent from the preference of the neighboring cells and independent of the location of the cell on the chip or on the wafer.Hence an SRAM region yields a unique and random pattern of 0&#39;s and 1&#39;s. This pattern can be called an SRAM fingerprint since it is unique per SRAM and hence per chip. It can be used as a PUF.Keys that are derived from the SRAM PUF are not stored &#39;on the chip&#39; but they are extracted &#39;from the chip&#39;, only when they are needed. In that way they are only present in the chip during a very short time window. When the SRAM is not powered there is no key present on the chip making the solution very secure.<h2>PUF Reliability</h2>The deep submicron process variations that determine PUF behavior are frozen during manufacturing and do not change afterwards. Hence the preference of the SRAM cells is persistent and stable over time.However, there is still a degree of noise. A small number of the cells, close to equilibrium are unstable and display a seemingly random startup preference. So, each time the SRAM starts up, a slightly different pattern emerges. This noise component is dependent on temperature, voltage ramp, and operating conditions.The noise of SRAM-based PUF responses has been exhaustively characterized and tested under a wide variety of circumstances and foundry processes:<ul><li>Temperatures ranging from -55&deg;C to +150&deg;C (-67&deg;F to 300&deg;F)</li><li>Voltage variation +/-20%</li><li>Humidity up to 80%</li><li>EMC tests at 3V/m (EN55020 0.15&ndash;150 MHz and IEC 61000-4-3 80-1000MHz)</li></ul>In particular, the SRAM PUF has been qualified for automotive, industrial and military use in collaboration with customers and partners.Millions of measurements have been performed. Under all these circumstances the average noise level of the SRAM-based PUF response was found to be lower than about 15%. Despite this amount of noise, it is possible to reconstruct a high-entropy device unique and reliable key every time the SRAM is powered. This can be done by applying error correction techniques, such as &#39;helper data algorithms&#39;[1] or &#39;fuzzy extractors&#39;[2]. These algorithms perform two main functions that will be explained below: error correction and privacy amplification.<h2>Error Correction</h2>Error correction techniques for cryptographic key reconstruction require an enrollment phase and a reconstruction phase. In the enrollment phase (a one-time process) the PUF response is mapped onto a codeword of an error correcting code. Information about the mapping is stored in the Activation Code (AC) or helper data. The AC is constructed such that it does not leak any information about the key. It should be stored in memory that is accessible by the PUF algorithms, but it can be stored off-chip as it is not sensitive. Any change to the AC, malicious or not, will prevent key reconstruction. The AC is only valid for the chip on which it was created.Each time the device runs an authentication protocol and needs the secret PUF key, a new noisy PUF measurement is carried out and the PUF key (without noise) is extracted from the AC and this new PUF response. This is called the reconstruction phase. Both enrollment and reconstruction phases are illustrated in Figure 2.The error correction algorithms have been designed to reconstruct the key with an average error rate of less than 10-12 and an error rate of less than 10-9 under extreme circumstances of 25% average noise.<h2><img src="https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/wevolver-project-images/froala%2F1591264692705-Enroll_reconstruct.png">Figure 2: Enrollment and reconstruction phase for the generation of PUF keys. Note that R is the initial PUF response during enrollment while R&#39; is a PUF response in the field with a noise component.</h2><h2>Privacy Amplification and Security</h2>Secret keys provide security based on the fact that they are completely random and hence unpredictable. Physical measurements, such as PUF responses, have a high degree of randomness, but are usually not completely uniformly random. Privacy amplification is used to generate uniformly random keys.By combining error correction and privacy amplification, a 1kByte SRAM PUF response can be turned into a 256-bit uniformly random key and only approximately 0.5 kByte is needed for a 128-bit key with full randomness. A typical SRAM PUF contains so much entropy that only a few dozen bytes are needed to provide a collision-free globally unique identifier that can be used as a unique (but noisy) electronic chip ID (ECID) or as a serial number.Dedicated security labs and security teams at customers have analyzed the security of Intrinsic ID&#39;s SRAM PUF against various invasive and non-invasive physical attacks without revealing any weaknesses. Attacks with Scanning Electron Microscopes, Lasers, FIBs and probes have not been successful. Side-channel attacks have not led to any leakage of sensitive information.<h2>Aging</h2>Accelerated aging tests have been performed on SRAM PUFs to investigate the noise level as a function of time. By using a patented anti-aging technique[3] a 25-year lifetime can be guaranteed for SRAM PUF technology.<h1>SRAM PUF Implementation &ndash; QuiddiKey &amp; BroadKey</h1>Intrinsic ID has bundled the above error correction, randomness extraction, security countermeasures and anti-aging techniques into its products. They extract cryptographic keys from the SRAM PUF in a very secure manner and are available as Hardware IP (netlist) called QuiddiKey&reg;, firmware (ANSI C Code) called BroadKey&trade;, or a combination of these by using BroadKey&#39;s hardware interface. These hybrid solutions combining hardware and software offer great efficiency when already integrated hardware accelerators, such as for (a-)symmetric cryptography, are used in combination with SRAM PUF technology.The hardware IP is small and fast &ndash; around 25K gates / 50K cycles &ndash; and connects to common interconnects, such as AMBA&reg; AHB, APB as well as proprietary interfaces. A Built-In Self-Test (BIST), diagnostics, and health checks are included in the logic. A driver is provided to ease integration with software. Since it is pure digital, single clock logic it synthesizes readily to any technology.Software reference implementations start from 4KB of code and are available for major platforms, such as ARM&reg;, ARC&reg;, Intel&reg;, MIPS and RISC-V. Software implementations can be used to add PUF technology to existing products by a firmware upgrade. Intrinsic ID also provides versions of BroadKey that are pre-integrated with ARM&reg; TrustZone&reg;.Both QuiddiKey hardware and BroadKey software solutions can be optimized for low footprint, low latency or low memory use depending on the application. Re-using or integrating with existing crypto cores and random number generators can further enhance performance and reduce footprint. Intrinsic ID solutions come with comprehensive product specifications and integration guidelines including reference code that illustrates usage of the API offered to the application programmer.<h2>Requirements</h2>These Intrinsic ID products use uninitialized SRAM. This can be a separate SRAM block or a part of a bigger existing SRAM. Standard SRAM suffices. To store the Activation Code (AC), access to a storage medium is needed. This can be embedded Non-Volatile-Memory (NVM), a separate memory on the board, e.g. flash, or cloud storage. For the firmware version BroadKey, a microcontroller is needed for which a C-compiler exists. The PUF algorithms can be stored in any NVM e.g., flash, ROM.Note that SRAM is embedded in almost any microprocessor and SoC, in every technology node and is part of the standard manufacturing process. There is no need for time-consuming qualification and chip testing, as extensive testing by Intrinsic ID and its partners has shown that technology reliably scales down to the smallest technology nodes currently available.<div id="ftn1"><h2>Use in the Field</h2>SRAM-based PUFs are commercially available from semiconductor companies. They are already deployed in a wide range of microcontrollers, FPGAs and smart card controllers. In other markets, software implementations[4] have enabled rapid deployment of this technology even as a retrofit solution. Intrinsic ID has partnered with leading semiconductor companies and developed solutions for protecting embedded systems, sensors, and controllers. More information about our SRAM PUF deployments can be found on our website: <a href="https://www.intrinsic-id.com" target="_blank">https://www.intrinsic-id.com</a>.<h1>Conclusion</h1>SRAM-based Physical Unclonable Functions have been successfully implemented in commercial products. SRAM PUFs combine high security and reliability with low cost, low footprint designs, and easy implementation. They have been deployed in many devices, from tiny microcontrollers and sensors to high performance FPGAs and secure elements.Numerous implementations have consistently demonstrated the reliability and security of the technology. SRAM PUFs are a mature and robust technology, designed for security and based on solid theoretical foundations. SRAM PUFs have gained their credibility in high security markets and are now gaining traction in markets ranging from low-cost IoT applications to high-end security solutions for government, defense, and the payment industry.<div id="ftn1"><h2>References</h2></div></div>[1] J.-P. Linnartz and P. Tuyls, &quot;New shielding functions to enhance privacy and prevent misuse of biometric templates,&quot; in International Conference on Audio and Video-based Biometric Person Authentication (AVBPA&#39;03), ser. LNCS, J. Kittler and M. S. Nixon, Eds., vol. 2688. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2003, pp. 393&ndash;402.<div id="ftn2">[2] X. Boyen, &quot;Reusable cryptographic fuzzy extractors,&quot; in ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS&#39;04). New York, NY, USA: ACM, 2004, pp. 82&ndash;91. AND Y. Dodis, L. Reyzin, and A. Smith, &quot;Fuzzy extractors: How to generate strong keys from biometrics and other noisy data,&quot; in EUROCRYPT&#39;04, ser. LNCS, C. Cachin and J. Camenisch, Eds., vol. 3027. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2004, pp. 523&ndash;540.[3] R. Maes and V. van der Leest, &quot;Countering the effects of silicon aging on SRAM PUFs&quot;, Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. Hardw.-Oriented Secur. Trust (HOST), pp. 148-153 available at <a href="https://www.intrinsic-id.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/PUF_aging.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">https://www.intrinsic-id.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/PUF_aging.pdf</a>&nbsp;[4] H.Hodson &ndash; New Scientist, &quot;Silicon fingerprint on chips could make any gadget unhackable&quot; June 6, 2016 <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg23030771-400-physical-quirks-in-silicon-chips-are-key-to-unhackable-devices/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg23030771-400-physical-quirks-in-silicon-chips-are-key-to-unhackable-devices/</a> or &quot;Chip design quirks make our lives more secure&quot; in the June 11 printed issue page 24.</div>

Low-cost and strong secret key storage technology is critical today to enable affordable and effective security systems.

SRAM PUF: The Secure Silicon Fingerprint

This article explains the technical requirements of 5G and describes the new semiconductor components that enable Vehicle-to-Everything connectivity in smart cars.

Towards 5G Mobility: The role of efficient discrete semiconductors

The next generation of feature-filled and energy-efficient electronics will require computer chips just a few atoms thick. For all its positive attributes, trusty silicon can&rsquo;t take us to these ultrathin extremes.Now, electrical engineers at Stanford have identified two semiconductors &ndash; hafnium diselenide and zirconium diselenide &ndash; that share or even exceed some of silicon&rsquo;s desirable traits, starting with the fact that all three materials can &ldquo;rust.&rdquo;&ldquo;It&rsquo;s a bit like rust, but a very desirable rust,&rdquo; said <a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/eric-pop" target="_blank">Eric Pop</a>, an associate professor of electrical engineering, who co-authored with post-doctoral scholar Michal Mleczko a paper that appears in the journal <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/8/e1700481" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Science Advances</a>.The new materials can also be shrunk to functional circuits just three atoms thick and they require less energy than silicon circuits. Although still experimental, the researchers said the materials could be a step toward the kinds of thinner, more energy-efficient chips demanded by devices of the future.<h2>Silicon&rsquo;s strengths</h2>Silicon has several qualities that have led it to become the bedrock of electronics, Pop explained. One is that it is blessed with a very good &ldquo;native&rdquo; insulator, silicon dioxide or, in plain English, silicon rust.Exposing silicon to oxygen during manufacturing gives chip-makers an easy way to isolate their circuitry. Other semiconductors do not &ldquo;rust&rdquo; into good insulators when exposed to oxygen, so they must be layered with additional insulators, a step that introduces engineering challenges. Both of the diselenides the Stanford group tested formed this elusive, yet high-quality insulating rust layer when exposed to oxygen.Not only do both ultrathin semiconductors rust, they do so in a way that is even more desirable than silicon. They form what are called &ldquo;high-K&rdquo; insulators, which enable lower power operation than is possible with silicon and its silicon oxide insulator.As the Stanford researchers started shrinking the diselenides to atomic thinness, they realized that these ultrathin semiconductors share another of silicon&rsquo;s secret advantages: the energy needed to switch transistors on &ndash; a critical step in computing, called the band gap &ndash; is in a just-right range. Too low and the circuits leak and become unreliable. Too high and the chip takes too much energy to operate and becomes inefficient. Both materials were in the same optimal range as silicon.All this and the diselenides can also be fashioned into circuits just three atoms thick, or about two-thirds of a nanometer, something silicon cannot do.&ldquo;Engineers have been unable to make silicon transistors thinner than about five nanometers, before the material properties begin to change in undesirable ways,&rdquo; Pop said.The combination of thinner circuits and desirable high-K insulation means that these ultrathin semiconductors could be made into transistors 10 times smaller than anything possible with silicon today.&ldquo;Silicon won&rsquo;t go away. But for consumers this could mean much longer battery life and much more complex functionality if these semiconductors can be integrated with silicon,&rdquo; Pop said.<h2>More work to do</h2>There is much work ahead. First, Mleczko and Pop must refine the electrical contacts between transistors on their ultrathin diselenide circuits. &ldquo;These connections have always proved a challenge for any new semiconductor, and the difficulty becomes greater as we shrink circuits to the atomic scale,&rdquo; Mleczko said.They are also working to better control the oxidized insulators to ensure they remain as thin and stable as possible. Last, but not least, only when these things are in order will they begin to integrate with other materials and then to scale up to working wafers, complex circuits and, eventually, complete systems.&ldquo;There&rsquo;s more research to do, but a new path to thinner, smaller circuits &ndash; and more energy-efficient electronics &ndash; is within reach,&rdquo; Pop said.

Chip makers use "rust" to insulate silicon chip circuits. Two new semiconductor materials share that and other useful traits. | iStock / vladimirovic

Among other virtues, silicon “rusts” in a way that insulates a chip's circuitry. Two new ultrathin materials share that trait and others vital to the future of electronics.

New semiconductor materials exceed some of silicon's 'secret' powers

Automotive semiconductors are getting smaller and lighter. Image: Nexperia

Reliable, small, and lightweight hardware that meets increasing performance requirements is today's engineering challenge in the automotive industry.

Putting high-performance computing into cars: automotive discrete semiconductors for autonomous driving

Holographic displays need twisted light. Twisted semiconductors assembled with the help of amino acids may enable them.

Twisted semiconductors for future moving holograms

One day soon we may live in smart houses that cater to our habits and needs, or ride in autonomous cars that rely on embedded sensors to provide safety and convenience. But today&rsquo;s electronic devices may not be able handle the deluge of data such applications portend because of limitations in their materials and design, according to the authors of a Stanford-led experiment recently published in&nbsp;Nature.To begin with, silicon transistors are no longer improving at their historic rate, which threatens to end the promise of smaller, faster computing known as Moore&rsquo;s Law. A second and related reason is computer design, say senior authors and Stanford professors&nbsp;Subhasish Mitra&nbsp;and&nbsp;H.-S. Philip Wong. Today&rsquo;s computers rely on separate logic and memory chips. These are laid out in two dimensions, like houses in a suburb, and connected by tiny wires, or interconnects, that become bottlenecked with data traffic.Now, the Stanford team has created a chip that breaks this bottleneck in two ways: first, by using nanomaterials not based on silicon for both logic and memory, and second, by stacking these computation and storage layers vertically, like floors in a high-rise, with a plethora of elevator-like interconnects between the &ldquo;floors&rdquo; to eliminate delays. &ldquo;This is the largest and most complex nanoelectronic system that has so far been made using the materials and nanotechnologies that are emerging to leapfrog silicon,&rdquo; said Mitra.The team, whose other Stanford members include professors&nbsp;Roger Howe&nbsp;and&nbsp;Krishna Saraswat, integrated over 2 million non-silicon transistors and 1 million memory cells, in addition to on-chip sensors for detecting gases &ndash; a proof of principle for other tasks yet to be devised. &ldquo;Electronic devices of these materials and three-dimensional design could ultimately give us computational systems 1,000 times more energy-efficient than anything we can build of silicon,&rdquo; Wong said.First author Max Shulaker, who performed this work while a PhD candidate at Stanford, is now an assistant professor at MIT and core member of its Microsystems Technology Laboratories. He explained in a single word why the team had to use emerging nanotechnologies and not conventional silicon technologies to achieve the high-rise design: heat. &ldquo;Building silicon transistors involves temperatures of over 1,000 degrees Celsius,&rdquo; Shulaker said. &ldquo;If you try to build a second layer on top of the first, you&rsquo;ll damage the bottom layer. This is why chips today have a single layer of circuitry.&rdquo;<h2>The magic of the materials</h2>The new prototype chip is a radical change from today&rsquo;s chips because it uses multiple nanotechnologies that can be fabricated at relatively low heat, Shulaker explained. Instead of relying on silicon-based transistors, the new chip uses carbon nanotubes, or CNTs, to perform computations. CNTs are sheets of 2-D carbon formed into nanocylinders. The new&nbsp;Naturepaper incorporates prior ground-breaking work by this team in developing the world&rsquo;s&nbsp;first all-CNT computer.The memory component of the new chip also relied on new processes and materials&nbsp;improved upon by this team. Called resistive random-access memory (RRAM), this is a type of nonvolatile memory &mdash; meaning that it doesn&rsquo;t lose data when the power is turned off &ndash; that operates by changing the resistance of a solid dielectric material.The key in this work is that CNT circuits and RRAM memory can be fabricated at temperatures below 200 Celsius. &ldquo;This means they can be built up in layers without harming the circuits beneath,&rdquo; Shulaker says. &ldquo;This truly is a remarkable feat of engineering,&rdquo; says Barbara De Salvo, scientific director at CEA-LETI, France, an international expert not connected with this project.The RRAM and carbon nanotubes are built vertically over one another, making a new, dense 3-D computer architecture with interleaving layers of logic and memory. By inserting a plethora of wires between these layers, this 3-D architecture promises to address the communication bottleneck. &ldquo;In addition to improved devices, 3-D integration can address another key consideration in systems: the interconnects within and between chips,&rdquo; Saraswat said.To demonstrate the potential of the technology, the researchers placed over a million carbon nanotube-based sensors on the surface of the chip, which they used to detect and classify ambient gases.Due to the layering of sensing, data storage and computing, the chip was able to measure each of the sensors in parallel and then write directly into its memory, generating huge bandwidth without risk of hitting a bottleneck, because the 3-D design made it unnecessary to move data between chips. In fact, even though Shulaker built the chip using the limited capabilities of an academic fabrication facility, the peak bandwidth between vertical layers of the chip could potentially approach and exceed the peak memory bandwidth of the most sophisticated silicon-based technologies available today.<h2>System benefits</h2>This provides several simultaneous benefits for future computing systems.&ldquo;The new 3-D computer architecture provides dense and fine-grained integration of computing and data storage, drastically overcoming the bottleneck from moving data between chips,&rdquo; Mitra says.&ldquo;As a result, the chip is able to store massive amounts of data and perform on-chip processing to transform a data deluge into useful information,&rdquo; Mitra says.Energy efficiency is another benefit. &ldquo;Logic made from carbon nanotubes will be ten times more energy efficient as today&rsquo;s logic made from silicon,&rdquo; Wong said. &ldquo;RRAM can also be denser, faster and more energy-efficient than the memory we use today.&rdquo;Thanks to the ground-breaking approach embodied by the Nature paper, the work is getting attention from leading scientists who are not directly connected with the research. Jan Rabaey, a professor of electrical engineering and computer sciences at the University of California, Berkeley, said 3-D chip architecture is such a fundamentally different approach that it may have other, more futuristic benefits to the advance of computing. &ldquo;These [3-D] structures may be particularly suited for alternative learning-based computational paradigms such as brain-inspired systems and deep neural nets,&rdquo; Rabaey said, adding, &ldquo;The approach presented by the authors is definitely a great first step in that direction.&rdquo;

Instead of relying on silicon-based devices, a new chip uses carbon nanotubes and resistive random-access memory (RRAM) cells. | Courtesy

Silicon chips are single story, but using new semiconductor materials, engineers can stack computer logic and memory like floors in a building to bust data traffic jams.

A new 'high rise' chip breaks computing's data bottleneck in two ways

This article is part of a series about ADAS and Autonomous Vehicles, sponsored by <a href="https://www.nexperia.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Nexperia</a>. We'll start the series by unpacking the concept of ADAS and exploring its impact on the world of semiconductors. The article is written by Ahmed Faizan Sheikh and co-authored by Ian Kennedy and Wayne Lawson. &nbsp;The second article will dive into new semiconductor products that can increase reliability and performance in electrical automotive systems. Find it&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/putting.highperformance.computing.into.cars.automotive.discrete.semiconductors.for.autonomous.driving" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">here</a>.&nbsp;<hr>Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems, also known as ADAS, are electronic systems that help with monitoring, warning, braking, and steering tasks in a vehicle. These technologies exist at different levels. For example, infotainment systems, rear-view cameras, blind spot, and lane departure warnings are applications of this technology which empower the driver with crucial information but also let them exercise control over the vehicle at all times.&nbsp;Next are semi-autonomous systems (SAS), like lane-keep assistance, which enable the vehicle to control itself for a brief period but allow the driver to override the automatic control when needed.&nbsp;Lastly, highly autonomous systems are the ones that take full control of the vehicle at times, like during automatic parking.All these subsystems come together to realize automated and semi-autonomous systems. From electronic stability control systems which help drivers regain control of their vehicles as needed, adaptive headlights which adjust their direction and intensity as per the road conditions, a rearview video system which allows the driver to see the area behind the rear bumper, adaptive cruise control which determines the speed of the vehicle based on the position of the driver’s vehicle with respect to the vehicle in front, and so on.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNTczNTcwMzEyOTExLUFEQVMgb3ZlcnZpZXcgMDMuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==">Examples of ADAS systems (blue) and Sensors (black)<h1>Components of ADAS</h1>Quite predictably, ADAS has played an important role in the development of autonomous cars and will play an even critical role in the years to come. But before we delve deeper into this, let’s understand how ADAS works and what makes up an ADAS system.<h2>Sensors</h2>Sensors capture real-time actionable data from the environment that provide input for the various Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems in a vehicle. Commonly used ADAS sensors include cameras, ultrasonic, radar, and Lidar sensors. They’re often located in the rear and front bumpers of the car and side-view mirrors.&nbsp;<h2>Software &amp; Data</h2>Most automotive companies are employing advanced software to process the incoming sensor data, learn and make decisions, and actuate the hardware for a specific response. Machine learning and artificial intelligence are ruling the industry and feeding the algorithms to decide how to behave in varied situations.&nbsp;The mapping functions of ADAS are used to collect and store geographical and infrastructure data related to vehicle sensors.<h2>Processors</h2>Electronic Control Units (ECUs) and Microcontroller Units (MCUs) are the hardware components (the electronic circuitry) that the software runs on. They are often dedicated to a single or narrow range of tasks, so with increasing ADAS applications, the number of processors is likely to increase as well. However, increasingly vehicle manufacturers are changing their approach from embedded software that is running on ADAS-specific ECUs to higher-level software platforms running on centralized ECUs or MCUs.Recommended reading: <a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/putting-high-performance-computing-into-cars-automotive-discrete-semiconductors-for-autonomous-driving" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Putting high-performance computing into cars: automotive discrete semiconductors for autonomous driving</a>ActuatorsActuators execute the decisions made by the system. They come in many forms, depending on the ADAS system. For example, displays that provide information, or actuators that control the engine and steering for adaptive cruise control or lane-keep assistance. <img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNTczMjMwMzE4MzE3LUFEQVMgS2V5IENvbXBvbmVudHMgMDIuanBnIiwiZWRpdHMiOnsicmVzaXplIjp7IndpZHRoIjo5NTAsImZpdCI6ImNvdmVyIn19fQ==">Four control points in Advanced Driver Assitance Systems are key for autonomous driving and product differentiation. &nbsp; | &nbsp; Image courtesy McKinsey&amp;Company<h1>Centralized vs. Decentralized ADAS System Architecture</h1>As you can sense, with increasing capabilities and a larger number of sub-systems comes increasing complexity. One of the key questions on how to achieve highly effective sensing &amp; processing evolves around the concept of sensor fusion and the question of implementing a centralized versus decentralized architecture for fusion.Centralized ADAS System ArchitecturesIn a centralized architecture, all the Remote Control Units (RCUs) are directly connected to a central control unit. For instance, Lidar and ultrasonic sensors will be located in two different locations of a vehicle and will perform two different functions. These sensors will gather input and send it to a central control unit which processes the data.&nbsp;Decentralized ADAS System&nbsp; ArchitecturesA decentralized fusion system consists of a network of sensing units, each with an ability to process its raw data and communicate with the adjacent nodes.&nbsp;Which architecture is the right one?It is tough to determine as to which architecture is the right way to design a self driving car. Centralized architecture could sound like a better option as the measurements from different sensors are independent quantities and not influenced by other nodes; there are two drawbacks. There should be enough communication bandwidth to transport the raw data to the centralized node. This essentially means high-power processing, and this could prove to be costly.&nbsp;On the other hand, decentralized architecture is complex. Although the demand related to bandwidth and centralized processing is reduced greatly in such an architecture, it introduces latency between actuation and sensing phases and increases the challenges related to the sharing of misinformation.<h1>Engineering Challenges in Designing ADAS Systems&nbsp;</h1>ADAS technology development affects many parts of vehicle engineering. Vital requirements for future developments are:&nbsp;<ol><li>Increasing redundancy.</li><li>Reducing weight and size of components (such as electronics, sensors and cameras).</li><li>Assimilating exclusive functions into more comprehensive systems. Additionally, accomplishing more multifaceted ADAS functions involve not only input from more cameras and sensors but also the fusion of data from those sensor elements.&nbsp;</li></ol>RedundancyIncreasing automation and (semi-)autonomy in vehicles increases the importance of the reliability of automotive electronics both at the system- and component level. Therefore the concept of dual redundancy of key systems has been introduced to improve reliability and safety. For instance, in the event of failure of part of a vehicle’s ADAS system you still need to be able to control the steering and brakes; a so-called limp home mode. Examples of systems that need redundancy are: drive by wire, steering, and braking systems. &nbsp;To achieve hardware redundancy extra components are included, which allow the continuing operation of a system in the event of a partial failure, thus increasing the availability and reliability of the system. Take for example a traditional brushless motor with three phases; if one of these phases is lost, then the motor will fail to turn. &nbsp;However, if the motor is designed to have another 3-phase set of windings, then if one phase fails, the motor will still operate. &nbsp;The requirements for high levels of system availability are driven by standards such as ISO26262 for critical safety functions where Automotive Safety Integrity Level (ASIL) C or D is required. Modern mission-critical automotive systems now feature redundancy and high-reliability automotive power MOSFETs that adhere to AEC Q101 qualifications from the Automotive Electronics Council. &nbsp;Increased safety and reliability are great. However, dual redundancy has the potential to increase the size, weight, and complexity of electronic subsystems, which already have become bigger, heavier, and more complex with an increasing amount of ADAS systems.Semiconductor manufacturers are innovating to overcome these challenges around the weight, size, and reliability of their components. Examples of solutions are MOSFETS with two independent channels inside a compact footprint, enabling both space and weight savings for designers.<img src="https://images.wevolver.com/eyJidWNrZXQiOiJ3ZXZvbHZlci1wcm9qZWN0LWltYWdlcyIsImtleSI6ImZyb2FsYS8xNTczNTA3Nzc5ODI5LVJTMTA3N19uZXhwZXJpYV9hYWEtMDE2MDA5LmpwZyIsImVkaXRzIjp7InJlc2l6ZSI6eyJ3aWR0aCI6OTUwLCJmaXQiOiJjb3ZlciJ9fX0=">Dual LFPAK56D MOSFETS which include 2 independent channels inside a compact footprint. | Image courtesy NexperiaA future article in this series will particularly address reducing the size of electronic components by the use of automotive qualified highly reliable small size Discrete Flat No Leads (DFN) packages.InterferenceAlong the same lines, another important concern is related to interference and shortcuts. The automotive software industry must meet the strict safety requirements and follow the proper certifications to ensure that everything is going as intended. Freedom from interference is an important requirement. The electronic currents passing through a component of an electronic system should not impact a nearby component through interference.Besides adhering to standards and qualifications, something called Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) can play an imperative role in discovering potential failures and studying their impact. FMEA can be an extremely powerful tool to lessen the error rate in an automotive system and to recognize the underlying complications in any situation of failure.<h1>Conclusion</h1>ADAS systems have tremendous potential to increase the safety, comfort, and effectiveness of our vehicles and transportation systems. By many ADAS is seen as a stepping stone to fully autonomous vehicles.&nbsp;As we’ve seen, more systems and more advanced systems, increase weight, seize, and complexity both on a systems level as well as on the overall vehicle architecture level. Semiconductor companies are responding to above mentioned challenges by innovating their components. The technological expertise of semiconductor companies is more impactful than ever in the future development of vehicle autonomy.&nbsp;<hr>This article is written by Ahmed Faizan Sheikh and co-authored by Ian Kennedy and Wayne Lawson.This article is part of a series about ADAS and Autonomous Vehicles, sponsored by <a href="https://www.nexperia.com/" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Nexperia</a>. In the next articles we will dive more deeply into the new semiconductor technologies that reliably enable you to bring high-performance computing, 5G connectivity, and sensing into cars. The second article will dive into how new semiconductor products can increase reliability and performance in electrical automotive systems. It's called&nbsp;“<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/article/putting.highperformance.computing.into.cars.automotive.discrete.semiconductors.for.autonomous.driving" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Putting high-performance computing into cars – automotive highly reliable miniaturized Discretes for autonomous driving</a>” and written by Jan Birger Preibisch.More articles on autonomous vehicle technology can be found&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wevolver.com/?articles=true&category=autonomous%20vehicles" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">here</a>. To read more about how the electrification of cars' powertrains impact semiconductors; read this article by Ian Kennedy. References<a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/semiconductors/our-insights/advanced-driver-assistance-systems-challenges-and-opportunities-ahead" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">• &nbsp; Advanced driver-assistance systems: Challenges and opportunities ahead &nbsp; - &nbsp; Mckinsey &amp; Company</a><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128037294000040" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">• &nbsp; Motion Planning for Intelligent Transportation Systems, Chapter 4 Advanced Driver Assistance Systems - Rahul KalaRobotics and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Indian Institute of Information Technology.</a><a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6681152" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">• &nbsp; S. Sommer et al., "RACE: A Centralized Platform Computer Based Architecture for Automotive Applications," 2013 IEEE International Electric Vehicle Conference (IEVC)</a><a href="https://www.nexperia.com/applications/automotive/adas-radar-sensor-module.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">• &nbsp; ADAS radar sensor module design &nbsp; - &nbsp; Nexperia</a>

Vehicles increasingly contain electronic systems that assist drivers with monitoring, warning, braking, and steering tasks. Semiconductor companies are innovating to increase safety, while reducing weight, size, and complexity.

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ORGANIZATIONS. SHAPING THE INDUSTRY.

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